GPAT Pharmacognosy Flashcards

24 sample cards from the Pharmacognosy deck

Sampled from the end of the deck, so these are different cards from the ones shown on the syllabus page.

1. How are glycosides classified based on the linkage atom?

   By the glycosidic linkage atom: O-glycosides, C-glycosides, S-glycosides (thioglycosides), and N-glycosides; also classified pharmacologically/chemically (cardiac, anthraquinone, saponin, cyanogenetic, etc.).

2. Name the pharmacologically/chemically important classes of glycosides with one drug example each.

   Cardiac (Digitalis), Anthraquinone (Senna, Aloe), Saponin (Liquorice, Dioscorea), Cyanogenetic (Wild cherry, bitter almond), Isothiocyanate/glucosinolate (Mustard), Flavonoid (Rutin), Coumarin (Psoralea), Bitter (Gentian).

3. What is the basic steroidal nucleus of cardiac glycosides and the lactone difference between cardenolides and bufadienolides?

   The cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene (steroid) nucleus. Cardenolides have a 5-membered (alpha,beta-unsaturated butenolide) lactone ring; bufadienolides have a 6-membered (doubly unsaturated) lactone ring.

4. Define alkaloids and state their general characteristic properties.

   Alkaloids are basic, nitrogen-containing (usually in a heterocyclic ring) plant secondary metabolites, mostly optically active, with marked physiological action; they give precipitates with alkaloidal reagents.

5. Name common alkaloidal precipitating (group) reagents.

   Mayer's reagent (cream ppt), Dragendorff's reagent (orange-brown ppt), Wagner's reagent (reddish-brown ppt), Hager's reagent (yellow ppt), and tannic acid/picric acid.

6. Classify alkaloids based on the nitrogen-containing ring nucleus with examples.

   Pyridine-piperidine (nicotine, lobeline), Tropane (atropine, cocaine), Quinoline (quinine), Isoquinoline (morphine), Indole (reserpine, ergometrine), Imidazole (pilocarpine), Steroidal (solanine), Purine (caffeine), and amino/pseudo/proto-alkaloids (ephedrine, colchicine).

7. Distinguish true, proto- and pseudo-alkaloids.

   True alkaloids: N in a heterocyclic ring, derived from amino acids, basic (e.g. atropine). Protoalkaloids: amino-acid derived but N not in a ring (e.g. ephedrine, mescaline). Pseudoalkaloids: not amino-acid derived (e.g. caffeine, solanine).

8. Name common extraction techniques used for phytoconstituents.

   Maceration, percolation, decoction, infusion, digestion, Soxhlet (continuous hot) extraction, reflux, ultrasound-assisted, microwave-assisted, supercritical fluid (CO2) extraction, and counter-current extraction.

9. Describe the principle of Soxhlet (continuous hot percolation) extraction.

   The drug in a thimble is repeatedly extracted by fresh condensed solvent that siphons back into the flask; it gives efficient extraction with less solvent but is unsuitable for thermolabile constituents.

10. List chromatographic isolation techniques used for plant constituents.

    TLC and HPTLC, column chromatography, paper chromatography, gas chromatography (GC), HPLC, flash chromatography, gel filtration, ion-exchange, and counter-current chromatography; hyphenated methods like GC-MS, LC-MS, LC-NMR.

11. What are phytopharmaceuticals as defined in Indian drug regulation?

    A phytopharmaceutical drug is a purified and standardized fraction with defined minimum four bio-active/marker compounds (not less than 95%) derived from a medicinal plant, intended for internal/external human use, regulated as a distinct category under the Drugs & Cosmetics Rules.

12. What is standardization of herbal drugs and what are key WHO quality-control parameters?

    Standardization confirms identity, purity and quality. Parameters include macro/microscopy, foreign matter, ash values, extractive values, moisture, heavy metals, microbial load, pesticide residue, aflatoxins, and marker-based quantitative assay (TLC/HPLC fingerprinting).

13. Define herbal formulations and name common dosage forms used in Ayurveda.

    Herbal formulations are dosage forms made from standardized herbal extracts/powders. Ayurvedic forms include Churna (powder), Vati/Gutika (tablets/pills), Asava-Arishta (fermented), Kwatha (decoction), Avaleha (confection), Taila (oil), Ghrita (ghee), and Bhasma.

14. Differentiate Asava and Arishta.

    Both are Ayurvedic fermented (self-generated alcohol) preparations. Asava is prepared using fresh juices or cold water decoctions, while Arishta is prepared using hot decoctions (kwatha) of the drugs; both ferment with a sugar source.

15. Name important natural pesticides/insecticides of plant origin and their source.

    Pyrethrum (from Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium flowers - pyrethrins), Nicotine (tobacco), Rotenone (Derris/Lonchocarpus roots), Neem (azadirachtin from Azadirachta indica), and Ryania.

16. Name pharmaceutically important enzymes of plant/animal origin with their use.

    Papain (Carica papaya) and Bromelain (pineapple) - proteolytic/digestive; Diastase (malt) - amylolytic; Pepsin and Trypsin/Pancreatin (animal) - digestive; Serratiopeptidase - anti-inflammatory.

17. Give examples of pharmaceutical aids of natural origin and their function.

    Acacia and Tragacanth (suspending/emulsifying agents), Agar and Pectin (gelling/suspending), Starch (disintegrant/diluent), Honey (sweetener/vehicle), Kaolin/Bentonite (adsorbents), and Gelatin (capsule shell, coating).

18. Name important toxic crude drugs and their toxic principles.

    Nux vomica (strychnine), Aconite (aconitine), Belladonna/Datura (atropine, hyoscyamine), Castor seeds (ricin), Abrus (abrin), Ergot (ergot alkaloids), and Calotropis (calotropin).

19. Name important animal-origin pharmacognostic products and their uses.

    Cod liver oil (vitamins A & D), Shark liver oil (squalene/vitamin A), Bees wax and Honey, Wool fat/Lanolin (ointment base), Musk and Civet (perfumery/fixatives), Gelatin, Heparin and Insulin (animal-derived), and Cantharides.

20. Name traditional herbal drugs (Indian) widely used, with their primary use.

    Ashwagandha (adaptogen), Tulsi (immunomodulator), Brahmi (nootropic), Guggul (hypolipidemic), Shatavari (galactagogue/tonic), Amla (vitamin C/rasayana), Guduchi/Giloy (immunomodulator), and Turmeric (anti-inflammatory).

21. Define herbal cosmetics and give examples of herbs used in them.

    Herbal cosmetics are cosmetic products containing phytochemicals/herbal ingredients that confer cosmetic plus therapeutic (cosmeceutical) benefits. Examples: Aloe vera (moisturizer), Henna (hair dye), Neem and Turmeric (antiseptic), Amla and Shikakai (hair care), Sandalwood (skin).

22. Which crude drugs/volatile oils are major items of Indian and worldwide trade?

    Worldwide-traded volatile oils include peppermint, eucalyptus, lemongrass, citronella, sandalwood, clove, and mentha oils. India is a leading exporter of mentha/menthol, lemongrass, sandalwood, and psyllium (Isabgol).

23. Define crude fibre and total ash as physical evaluation parameters.

    Crude fibre is the indigestible cellulosic residue remaining after successive acid and alkali digestion of the drug. Total ash is the inorganic residue (physiological + non-physiological ash) remaining after complete incineration, indicating mineral content and earthy contamination.

24. What is a chemical race (chemical/geographical variety) and why is it significant in pharmacognosy?

    A chemical race is a plant species that is morphologically identical but differs in the type/amount of chemical constituents due to genetics or environment; it is significant because it affects the therapeutic quality and selection of source plants for cultivation.

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