Para-Clinical Microbiology Syllabus

Microbiology syllabus — full chapter and topic list

Expand any chapter to see its topics and sub-topics. This is the whole examinable outline for Microbiology in Para-Clinical, not a summary of it.

1. 1

   Introduction to Microbiology

   3 topics

   • History of Microbiology
     • Early Discoveries
     • Golden Age of Microbiology
     • Modern Microbiology
   • Classification of Microorganisms
     • Bacteria
     • Viruses
     • Fungi
     • Protozoa
     • Algae
   • Microscopy
     • Light Microscopy
     • Electron Microscopy
     • Fluorescence Microscopy
2. 2

   Bacteriology

   4 topics

   • Bacterial Structure
     • Cell Wall
     • Cell Membrane
     • Cytoplasm
     • Flagella
     • Pili
     • Spores
   • Bacterial Physiology
     • Growth and Reproduction
     • Metabolism
     • Genetic Exchange
   • Pathogenic Bacteria
     • Gram-Positive Bacteria
     • Gram-Negative Bacteria
     • Mycobacteria
     • Spirochetes
   • Bacterial Infections
     • Respiratory Infections
     • Gastrointestinal Infections
     • Skin and Soft Tissue Infections
     • Systemic Infections
3. 3

   Virology

   4 topics

   • Virus Structure
     • Capsid
     • Envelope
     • Genome
   • Virus Replication
     • Attachment and Entry
     • Genome Replication
     • Assembly and Release
   • Pathogenic Viruses
     • DNA Viruses
     • RNA Viruses
     • Retroviruses
   • Viral Infections
     • Respiratory Infections
     • Gastrointestinal Infections
     • Neurological Infections
     • Systemic Infections
4. 4

   Mycology

   4 topics

   • Fungal Structure
     • Cell Wall
     • Cell Membrane
     • Hyphae
     • Spores
   • Fungal Physiology
     • Growth and Reproduction
     • Metabolism
   • Pathogenic Fungi
     • Yeasts
     • Molds
     • Dimorphic Fungi
   • Fungal Infections
     • Superficial Mycoses
     • Cutaneous Mycoses
     • Subcutaneous Mycoses
     • Systemic Mycoses
5. 5

   Parasitology

   4 topics

   • Protozoa
     • Amoebae
     • Flagellates
     • Ciliates
     • Sporozoa
   • Helminths
     • Nematodes
     • Trematodes
     • Cestodes
   • Ectoparasites
     • Lice
     • Mites
     • Fleas
     • Ticks
   • Parasitic Infections
     • Intestinal Infections
     • Blood and Tissue Infections
     • Vector-Borne Infections
6. 6

   Immunology

   4 topics

   • Innate Immunity
     • Physical Barriers
     • Cellular Defenses
     • Inflammation
   • Adaptive Immunity
     • Humoral Immunity
     • Cell-Mediated Immunity
     • Immunological Memory
   • Immune Response to Infections
     • Bacterial Infections
     • Viral Infections
     • Fungal Infections
     • Parasitic Infections
   • Immunopathology
     • Hypersensitivity Reactions
     • Autoimmune Diseases
     • Immunodeficiency Disorders
7. 7

   Microbial Genetics

   4 topics

   • Genetic Material
     • DNA Structure
     • RNA Structure
   • Gene Expression
     • Transcription
     • Translation
     • Regulation of Gene Expression
   • Genetic Variation
     • Mutations
     • Horizontal Gene Transfer
   • Genetic Engineering
     • Recombinant DNA Technology
     • CRISPR-Cas9
8. 8

   Antimicrobial Agents

   4 topics

   • Antibiotics
     • Mechanisms of Action
     • Spectrum of Activity
     • Resistance Mechanisms
   • Antiviral Agents
     • Mechanisms of Action
     • Resistance Mechanisms
   • Antifungal Agents
     • Mechanisms of Action
     • Resistance Mechanisms
   • Antiparasitic Agents
     • Mechanisms of Action
     • Resistance Mechanisms
9. 9

   Clinical Microbiology

   4 topics

   • Specimen Collection and Transport
     • Types of Specimens
     • Transport Media
   • Diagnostic Techniques
     • Microscopy
     • Culture Methods
     • Molecular Methods
     • Serological Methods
   • Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing
     • Disk Diffusion Method
     • Broth Dilution Method
     • E-test
   • Infection Control
     • Sterilization and Disinfection
     • Hospital-Acquired Infections
     • Antibiotic Stewardship

Microbiology flashcards for Para-Clinical

24 of 55 cards from the Microbiology deck — real questions with worked answers.

1. Who is regarded as the "Father of Microbiology," and what was his key contribution using a single-lens microscope in the 1670s?

   Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. He built simple single-lens microscopes and was the first to observe and describe living microorganisms (which he called "animalcules"), including bacteria and protozoa.

2. State the germ theory of disease and name the scientist whose experiments (swan-neck flasks) disproved spontaneous generation.

   Germ theory states that many diseases are caused by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur's swan-neck flask experiments disproved spontaneous generation by showing that sterile broth stayed sterile unless exposed to airborne microbes.

3. List Koch's postulates for establishing that a specific microbe causes a specific disease.

   1) The microbe is found in all cases of the disease and absent in healthy hosts; 2) It can be isolated and grown in pure culture; 3) The cultured microbe causes the disease when inoculated into a healthy host; 4) It can be re-isolated from that host and matches the original.

4. According to the three-domain classification system (Woese), what are the three domains of life?

   Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.

5. What is binomial nomenclature, and how is a bacterial species name such as Escherichia coli written correctly?

   Binomial nomenclature assigns each organism a two-part Latin name: genus (capitalized) + species (lowercase), both italicized. Example: Escherichia coli, abbreviated E. coli.

6. Distinguish prokaryotic from eukaryotic cells by three key structural features.

   Prokaryotes lack a membrane-bound nucleus (nucleoid instead), lack membrane-bound organelles, and have 70S ribosomes. Eukaryotes have a true membrane-bound nucleus, membrane-bound organelles, and 80S ribosomes.

7. State the formula for the total magnification of a compound light microscope.

   $$\text{Total magnification} = M_{objective} \times M_{eyepiece}$$ For example, a $40\times$ objective with a $10\times$ eyepiece gives $400\times$.

8. Write the formula for the limit of resolution (resolving power) of a microscope and define its terms.

   $$d = \frac{0.61\,\lambda}{NA}$$ where $d$ is the smallest resolvable distance, $\lambda$ is the wavelength of light, and $NA$ is the numerical aperture of the objective. Smaller $d$ means better resolution.

9. Define numerical aperture (NA) and give its equation.

   Numerical aperture measures a lens's ability to gather light and resolve detail. $$NA = n \sin\theta$$ where $n$ is the refractive index of the medium between lens and specimen and $\theta$ is the half-angle of the light cone. Immersion oil raises $n$ (~1.5) to increase NA.

10. Which type of microscopy achieves far higher resolution than light microscopy, and roughly what resolution can it reach?

    Electron microscopy (TEM/SEM) uses a beam of electrons (very short $\lambda$) and can resolve structures down to about $0.2\ \text{nm}$, far beyond the ~$0.2\ \mu\text{m}$ limit of light microscopy.

11. Describe the steps of the Gram stain and the four reagents used in order.

    1) Crystal violet (primary stain); 2) Gram's iodine (mordant); 3) Alcohol/acetone (decolorizer); 4) Safranin (counterstain). Gram-positive cells retain crystal violet (purple); Gram-negative cells lose it and take up safranin (pink/red).

12. Compare the cell walls of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

    Gram-positive: thick peptidoglycan layer, teichoic acids, no outer membrane. Gram-negative: thin peptidoglycan between an inner and an outer membrane; the outer membrane contains lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and a periplasmic space.

13. What is the primary structural and chemical component of the bacterial cell wall, and what unusual amino acids/sugars characterize it?

    Peptidoglycan (murein): a mesh of glycan chains of alternating N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM), cross-linked by short peptides containing D-amino acids (e.g., D-alanine).

14. What is lipopolysaccharide (LPS), where is it located, and what is its clinically important toxic component?

    LPS is a component of the Gram-negative outer membrane, composed of lipid A, a core polysaccharide, and O-antigen. Lipid A is the endotoxin responsible for fever and septic shock.

15. Differentiate a bacterial capsule from a slime layer and state their function.

    Both are glycocalyx layers external to the cell wall. A capsule is a well-organized, firmly attached layer; a slime layer is loose and diffuse. Both aid in adherence (biofilms) and the capsule protects against phagocytosis (a virulence factor).

16. Distinguish flagella, pili (fimbriae), and the sex pilus in bacteria.

    Flagella are long filaments for motility. Fimbriae (pili) are short, numerous appendages for adhesion. The sex (F) pilus is a specialized pilus that mediates DNA transfer during conjugation.

17. What is a bacterial endospore, which genera form them, and why are they clinically important?

    An endospore is a dormant, highly resistant survival structure formed inside the cell. Genera Bacillus and Clostridium form them. They resist heat, desiccation, chemicals, and radiation, making sterilization (e.g., autoclaving) essential.

18. Classify bacteria by shape and arrangement, giving the terms for cluster, chain, and pair arrangements of cocci.

    Shapes: coccus (spherical), bacillus (rod), spirillum/spirochete (spiral). Arrangements of cocci: staphylo- (clusters), strepto- (chains), diplo- (pairs).

19. Classify bacteria by their oxygen requirements into five categories.

    Obligate aerobes (need $\ce{O2}$), obligate anaerobes ($\ce{O2}$ is toxic), facultative anaerobes (grow with or without $\ce{O2}$), aerotolerant anaerobes (tolerate but don't use $\ce{O2}$), and microaerophiles (need low $\ce{O2}$).

20. Write the equation describing exponential (log-phase) bacterial growth in terms of cell number and generations.

    $$N = N_{0} \times 2^{n}$$ where $N$ is the final number of cells, $N_{0}$ the initial number, and $n$ the number of generations (divisions).

21. Name the four phases of a bacterial growth curve in a closed batch culture, in order.

    1) Lag phase, 2) Log (exponential) phase, 3) Stationary phase, 4) Death (decline) phase.

22. Define generation (doubling) time and give the formula relating it to the number of generations over time.

    Generation time is the time required for a population to double. $$g = \frac{t}{n}$$ where $g$ is generation time, $t$ is elapsed time, and $n$ is the number of generations.

23. Compare exotoxins and endotoxins in bacteria.

    Exotoxins: secreted proteins from Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacteria, highly potent, often toxoid-convertible, specific effects. Endotoxin: lipid A of LPS from Gram-negative outer membrane, released on lysis, causes fever/shock, heat-stable, not converted to toxoid.

24. Which pathogen causes tuberculosis, what staining property does it show, and why?

    Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is acid-fast (retains carbol fuchsin after acid-alcohol in the Ziehl-Neelsen stain) because of the high mycolic acid content of its waxy cell wall.

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