BDS General Pathology Syllabus

General Pathology syllabus — full chapter and topic list

Expand any chapter to see its topics and sub-topics. This is the whole examinable outline for General Pathology in BDS, not a summary of it.

1. 1

   Cell Injury and Adaptation

   4 topics

   • Cell Injury
     • Types of Cell Injury
     • Mechanisms of Cell Injury
     • Reversible and Irreversible Injury
     • Cell Death: Necrosis and Apoptosis
   • Cellular Adaptations
     • Hypertrophy
     • Hyperplasia
     • Atrophy
     • Metaplasia
   • Intracellular Accumulations
     • Lipids
     • Proteins
     • Glycogen
     • Pigments
   • Pathologic Calcification
     • Dystrophic Calcification
     • Metastatic Calcification
2. 2

   Inflammation and Repair

   3 topics

   • Acute Inflammation
     • Vascular Changes
     • Cellular Events
     • Chemical Mediators
   • Chronic Inflammation
     • Causes
     • Cellular Components
     • Granulomatous Inflammation
   • Tissue Repair
     • Regeneration
     • Healing by Connective Tissue
     • Factors Affecting Healing
3. 3

   Hemodynamic Disorders

   5 topics

   • Edema
     • Pathophysiology
     • Types of Edema
   • Hemorrhage
     • Causes
     • Clinical Significance
   • Thrombosis
     • Pathogenesis
     • Fate of Thrombus
   • Embolism
     • Types of Emboli
     • Clinical Consequences
   • Shock
     • Types of Shock
     • Pathophysiology
     • Clinical Features
4. 4

   Genetic Disorders

   4 topics

   • Mendelian Disorders
     • Autosomal Dominant Disorders
     • Autosomal Recessive Disorders
     • X-linked Disorders
   • Chromosomal Disorders
     • Numerical Abnormalities
     • Structural Abnormalities
   • Multifactorial Disorders
     • Examples and Mechanisms
   • Molecular Basis of Genetic Diseases
     • Mutations
     • Epigenetics
5. 5

   Neoplasia

   6 topics

   • Fundamentals of Neoplasia
     • Definitions and Nomenclature
     • Benign vs Malignant Tumors
   • Molecular Basis of Cancer
     • Genetic Changes in Cancer
     • Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes
   • Tumor-Host Interactions
     • Local and Systemic Effects
     • Paraneoplastic Syndromes
   • Carcinogenesis
     • Chemical Carcinogenesis
     • Radiation Carcinogenesis
     • Microbial Carcinogenesis
   • Tumor Progression and Metastasis
     • Invasion and Metastasis
     • Angiogenesis
   • Clinical Aspects of Neoplasia
     • Diagnosis
     • Grading and Staging
     • Treatment
6. 6

   Environmental and Nutritional Pathology

   2 topics

   • Environmental Diseases
     • Toxicology
     • Chemical Injuries
     • Physical Injuries
   • Nutritional Diseases
     • Malnutrition
     • Vitamin Deficiencies
     • Obesity
7. 7

   Infectious Diseases

   5 topics

   • General Principles of Microbial Pathogenesis
     • Host-Pathogen Interactions
     • Mechanisms of Microbial Injury
   • Bacterial Infections
     • Pathogenesis and Examples
   • Viral Infections
     • Pathogenesis and Examples
   • Fungal Infections
     • Pathogenesis and Examples
   • Parasitic Infections
     • Pathogenesis and Examples
8. 8

   Immunopathology

   5 topics

   • Basics of the Immune System
     • Innate Immunity
     • Adaptive Immunity
   • Hypersensitivity Reactions
     • Type I Hypersensitivity
     • Type II Hypersensitivity
     • Type III Hypersensitivity
     • Type IV Hypersensitivity
   • Autoimmune Diseases
     • Mechanisms
     • Examples
   • Immunodeficiency Diseases
     • Primary Immunodeficiencies
     • Secondary Immunodeficiencies
   • Amyloidosis
     • Pathogenesis
     • Classification
     • Clinical Features
9. 9

   Blood Vessels

   1 topic

   • Vascular Disorders
     • Atherosclerosis
     • Hypertension
     • Aneurysms
     • Vasculitis
10. 10

    Heart

    4 topics

    • Ischemic Heart Disease
      • Pathogenesis
      • Clinical Syndromes
    • Hypertensive Heart Disease
      • Left-sided Hypertensive Heart Disease
      • Right-sided Hypertensive Heart Disease
    • Valvular Heart Disease
      • Rheumatic Heart Disease
      • Infective Endocarditis
      • Non-infective Endocarditis
    • Myocardial Diseases
      • Cardiomyopathies
      • Myocarditis
11. 11

    Respiratory System

    4 topics

    • Obstructive Lung Diseases
      • Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
      • Asthma
      • Bronchiectasis
    • Restrictive Lung Diseases
      • Interstitial Lung Diseases
      • Pneumoconiosis
    • Pulmonary Infections
      • Pneumonia
      • Tuberculosis
      • Fungal Infections
    • Lung Tumors
      • Primary Lung Cancer
      • Metastatic Tumors
12. 12

    Gastrointestinal Tract

    6 topics

    • Esophagus
      • Esophagitis
      • Barrett's Esophagus
      • Esophageal Cancer
    • Stomach
      • Gastritis
      • Peptic Ulcer Disease
      • Gastric Cancer
    • Intestines
      • Inflammatory Bowel Disease
      • Infectious Enterocolitis
      • Colorectal Cancer
    • Liver
      • Hepatitis
      • Cirrhosis
      • Hepatocellular Carcinoma
    • Gallbladder and Biliary Tract
      • Cholelithiasis
      • Cholecystitis
      • Gallbladder Cancer
    • Pancreas
      • Pancreatitis
      • Pancreatic Cancer
13. 13

    Urinary Tract

    2 topics

    • Kidneys
      • Glomerular Diseases
      • Tubulointerstitial Diseases
      • Renal Tumors
    • Ureters and Bladder
      • Urolithiasis
      • Bladder Cancer
14. 14

    Reproductive System

    3 topics

    • Male Reproductive System
      • Prostate Diseases
      • Testicular Tumors
    • Female Reproductive System
      • Cervical Diseases
      • Endometrial Diseases
      • Ovarian Tumors
    • Breast
      • Benign Breast Diseases
      • Breast Cancer
15. 15

    Endocrine System

    5 topics

    • Pituitary Gland
      • Hyperpituitarism
      • Hypopituitarism
    • Thyroid Gland
      • Hyperthyroidism
      • Hypothyroidism
      • Thyroid Tumors
    • Parathyroid Gland
      • Hyperparathyroidism
      • Hypoparathyroidism
    • Adrenal Gland
      • Adrenocortical Hyperfunction
      • Adrenocortical Hypofunction
      • Adrenal Tumors
    • Pancreatic Endocrine Tumors
      • Insulinomas
      • Gastrinomas
16. 16

    Nervous System

    4 topics

    • Cerebrovascular Diseases
      • Stroke
      • Aneurysms
    • Infections of the CNS
      • Meningitis
      • Encephalitis
    • Neurodegenerative Diseases
      • Alzheimer's Disease
      • Parkinson's Disease
      • Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
    • CNS Tumors
      • Gliomas
      • Meningiomas
17. 17

    Musculoskeletal System

    3 topics

    • Bone Diseases
      • Osteoporosis
      • Osteomyelitis
      • Bone Tumors
    • Joint Diseases
      • Osteoarthritis
      • Rheumatoid Arthritis
      • Gout
    • Muscle Diseases
      • Muscular Dystrophies
      • Myopathies
18. 18

    Skin

    3 topics

    • Inflammatory Skin Diseases
      • Eczema
      • Psoriasis
      • Acne
    • Blistering Diseases
      • Pemphigus
      • Bullous Pemphigoid
    • Skin Tumors
      • Benign Tumors
      • Malignant Tumors
19. 19

    Pediatric Diseases

    3 topics

    • Congenital Anomalies
      • Types and Examples
    • Perinatal Infections
      • TORCH Infections
    • Pediatric Tumors
      • Neuroblastoma
      • Wilms Tumor

General Pathology flashcards for BDS

21 of 73 cards from the General Pathology deck — real questions with worked answers.

1. What are the two principal patterns of reversible cell injury seen under light microscopy?

   Cellular (hydropic) swelling — from failure of the ATP-dependent $\ce{Na+/K+}$ pump causing water influx — and fatty change (steatosis) — accumulation of intracytoplasmic lipid vacuoles, seen mainly in liver, heart, and kidney.

2. List the two hallmark ultrastructural features that distinguish irreversible from reversible cell injury.

   (1) Severe mitochondrial swelling with amorphous densities in the matrix, and (2) profound plasma membrane damage. These mark the 'point of no return' along with massive $\ce{Ca^2+}$ influx and lysosomal enzyme leakage.

3. Name the four intracellular systems most vulnerable to cell injury.

   (1) Aerobic respiration/mitochondrial ATP generation, (2) integrity of cell membranes, (3) protein synthesis, and (4) integrity of the genetic apparatus (DNA).

4. Contrast necrosis and apoptosis in terms of cell size, membrane integrity, and inflammation.

   Necrosis: cell swelling, disrupted membranes, enzymatic digestion with leakage, and adjacent inflammation. Apoptosis: cell shrinkage, intact membrane (apoptotic bodies), no leakage, and characteristically no inflammation.

5. Match each morphologic pattern of necrosis to its classic setting: coagulative, liquefactive, caseous, fat, gangrenous, fibrinoid.

   Coagulative — solid organ ischemia (e.g., MI); Liquefactive — brain infarct/abscess; Caseous — tuberculosis; Fat — acute pancreatitis; Gangrenous — ischemic limb; Fibrinoid — immune vasculitis (antigen-antibody + fibrin in vessel walls).

6. What is the biochemical basis of reperfusion injury after ischemia?

   Restored blood flow delivers oxygen and inflammatory cells to injured tissue, generating a burst of reactive oxygen species (e.g., $\ce{O2^{.-}}$, $\ce{H2O2}$, $\ce{^{.}OH}$), plus complement activation and neutrophil-mediated damage that paradoxically worsens injury.

7. Name the three major reactive oxygen species and one enzyme that neutralizes each.

   Superoxide $\ce{O2^{.-}}$ (neutralized by superoxide dismutase), hydrogen peroxide $\ce{H2O2}$ (catalase and glutathione peroxidase), and hydroxyl radical $\ce{^{.}OH}$ (scavenged by glutathione/antioxidants).

8. Define the roles of the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways of apoptosis.

   Intrinsic (mitochondrial): triggered by cell stress/DNA damage; regulated by BCL-2 family, releases cytochrome c to activate caspase-9. Extrinsic (death receptor): triggered by Fas/FasL or TNF binding, activating caspase-8. Both converge on executioner caspases-3 and -6.

9. Define hypertrophy and hyperplasia and give one physiologic example of each.

   Hypertrophy = increase in cell size (and organ size) with no new cells, e.g., cardiac muscle in hypertension or uterine smooth muscle in pregnancy. Hyperplasia = increase in cell number, e.g., breast/uterine glandular proliferation in pregnancy (hormonal) or liver regeneration.

10. What is metaplasia, and give the classic respiratory and esophageal examples.

    Metaplasia is a reversible change in which one differentiated (adult) cell type is replaced by another better suited to stress. Respiratory: ciliated columnar → stratified squamous in smokers' bronchi. Esophagus: squamous → columnar (Barrett esophagus) in chronic reflux.

11. Define atrophy and list two of its common causes.

    Atrophy is a decrease in the size of a cell/tissue/organ due to loss of cell substance. Causes include decreased workload (disuse), loss of innervation, diminished blood supply, inadequate nutrition, loss of endocrine stimulation, and aging.

12. What is dysplasia and why is it clinically significant?

    Dysplasia is disordered but non-neoplastic cellular growth marked by loss of uniformity and architectural orientation, with nuclear pleomorphism and increased mitoses. It is a preneoplastic lesion; severe dysplasia (carcinoma in situ) may progress to invasive carcinoma but is potentially reversible if the stimulus is removed.

13. Name the major categories of endogenous and exogenous intracellular accumulations.

    Endogenous: normal substances in excess (lipid, protein, glycogen), abnormal endogenous products (mutant proteins), or pigments (lipofuscin, melanin, hemosiderin, bilirubin). Exogenous: pigments the cell cannot degrade, e.g., carbon (anthracosis), tattoo pigment.

14. Distinguish lipofuscin, hemosiderin, and melanin as endogenous pigments.

    Lipofuscin: 'wear-and-tear' yellow-brown lipid-peroxidation pigment of aging/atrophy, no injury. Hemosiderin: golden-brown iron-storage pigment (aggregated ferritin), stains blue with Prussian blue, seen in iron overload/hemorrhage. Melanin: brown-black pigment made by melanocytes, the only endogenous brown-black pigment.

15. Differentiate hemosiderosis from hemochromatosis.

    Hemosiderosis is localized or systemic hemosiderin accumulation without tissue damage. Hereditary hemochromatosis is systemic iron overload causing organ injury — the triad of cirrhosis, diabetes ('bronze diabetes'), and skin pigmentation, plus cardiac and gonadal failure.

16. Compare dystrophic and metastatic calcification with respect to serum calcium and tissue involved.

    Dystrophic: calcification of dead/dying tissue with NORMAL serum calcium (e.g., atheromas, damaged heart valves, TB nodes). Metastatic: calcification of NORMAL tissue due to HYPERCALCEMIA (e.g., hyperparathyroidism, vitamin D toxicity, bone destruction), favoring gastric mucosa, kidneys, lungs, and blood vessels.

17. List the four main causes of hypercalcemia leading to metastatic calcification.

    (1) Increased PTH (primary/secondary hyperparathyroidism, PTH-related peptide from tumors), (2) bone destruction (myeloma, metastases, immobilization, Paget disease), (3) vitamin D disorders (toxicity, sarcoidosis), and (4) renal failure with secondary hyperparathyroidism.

18. State the five cardinal clinical signs of acute inflammation and their Latin names.

    Rubor (redness), Tumor (swelling), Calor (heat), Dolor (pain), and Functio laesa (loss of function).

19. Describe the sequence of vascular changes in acute inflammation.

    Transient vasoconstriction, then vasodilation (increased blood flow → heat and redness), followed by increased vascular permeability with plasma protein leakage (exudate), causing stasis and hemoconcentration that promotes leukocyte margination.

20. List the steps of leukocyte extravasation in order.

    (1) Margination and rolling (selectins — E-, P-, L-selectin binding sialyl-Lewis X), (2) firm adhesion (integrins binding ICAM-1/VCAM-1), (3) transmigration/diapedesis (PECAM-1/CD31), and (4) chemotaxis toward the stimulus.

21. Name four important chemotactic agents for neutrophils.

    $\ce{C5a}$, leukotriene $\ce{B4}$ (LTB4), bacterial N-formyl-methionyl peptides, and chemokines (e.g., IL-8/CXCL8).

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