Scottish Advanced Higher Modern Studies Flashcards

24 sample cards from the Modern Studies deck

Sampled from the end of the deck, so these are different cards from the ones shown on the syllabus page.

1. What is the functionalist (Davis and Moore) theory of inequality?

   Inequality is necessary and beneficial: society must allocate the most able people to its most important and demanding roles, and unequal rewards act as incentives to motivate talented individuals to undertake them (role allocation).

2. State a key criticism of the functionalist theory of stratification.

   It assumes a meritocracy that does not exist, ignores how inherited wealth and discrimination block talent, cannot objectively measure a job's 'importance', and overlooks that high rewards often reflect power rather than functional necessity.

3. Summarise the Marxist theory of inequality.

   Inequality stems from the capitalist economic structure: the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) exploit the proletariat (workers) to extract profit/surplus value, creating class conflict; this material base shapes the unequal superstructure of society.

4. Summarise the Weberian view of inequality and stratification.

   Weber argued stratification is multidimensional, based on three overlapping factors: class (economic/market position), status (social honour and prestige), and party (organised power), rather than economic class alone.

5. What is the difference between a structural and an individualist explanation of inequality?

   Structural explanations locate the causes in the organisation of society (the economy, discrimination, class structure). Individualist explanations locate causes in personal characteristics, choices, behaviour or a 'culture of poverty'.

6. Distinguish between income and wealth.

   Income is a flow of money received over a period (wages, benefits, dividends, rent). Wealth is a stock — the total value of assets owned at a point in time (property, savings, shares, pensions) minus debts.

7. How is wealth distributed compared with income in the UK?

   Wealth is far more unequally distributed than income: the richest tenth own a much larger share of total wealth than of total income, partly because wealth accumulates and is inherited across generations.

8. What is the Gini coefficient and what range can it take?

   The Gini coefficient is a summary measure of inequality ranging from $0$ to $1$ (or $0$ to $100\%$): $0$ represents perfect equality (everyone has the same), and $1$ represents perfect inequality (one person has everything).

9. What does the Lorenz curve show?

   The Lorenz curve plots the cumulative share of total income (or wealth) against the cumulative share of the population from poorest to richest. The further it bows below the $45^{\circ}$ line of perfect equality, the greater the inequality.

10. How is relative poverty officially defined in the UK?

    A household is in relative poverty if its income is below $60\%$ of the contemporary median household income (after housing costs are often considered separately).

11. Distinguish between absolute and relative poverty.

    Absolute poverty is lacking the minimum resources needed for physical survival (food, shelter, clothing). Relative poverty is having significantly less than the average standard of living in one's own society, so the threshold rises as society grows richer.

12. What is the difference between equality of opportunity and equality of outcome?

    Equality of opportunity means everyone has the same chances and a fair starting point (e.g. open access to education). Equality of outcome means everyone ends up with similar results or rewards regardless of starting point.

13. Identify the two main approaches governments use to reduce inequality.

    Universalism — benefits/services provided to all regardless of income (e.g. NHS, child benefit historically); and Selectivism/means-testing — targeting resources only at those who meet specific (usually income-based) criteria.

14. How does progressive taxation reduce inequality?

    In a progressive system the tax rate rises as income rises, so higher earners pay a larger proportion of their income. This redistributes resources and narrows the gap between rich and poor (e.g. UK income tax bands).

15. What is the difference between progressive, proportional and regressive taxes?

    Progressive: the rate increases with income (e.g. income tax). Proportional: the same rate at all income levels (a 'flat tax'). Regressive: takes a larger share of income from the poor than the rich (e.g. VAT on essentials).

16. State two arguments commonly made against high welfare spending to reduce inequality.

    It may create a 'dependency culture' and reduce work incentives, and it is costly, raising taxation and (critics argue) potentially harming economic growth and individual responsibility.

17. What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative research methods?

    Quantitative methods gather numerical, measurable data suited to statistical analysis (e.g. surveys). Qualitative methods gather rich, descriptive, non-numerical data about meanings and experiences (e.g. unstructured interviews).

18. Distinguish between primary and secondary data.

    Primary data is collected first-hand by the researcher for their specific study (surveys, interviews, observation). Secondary data already exists, having been produced by others (official statistics, documents, previous research).

19. What is the difference between a representative sample and a biased sample?

    A representative sample accurately reflects the characteristics of the wider population, so findings can be generalised. A biased sample over- or under-represents certain groups, distorting results and limiting generalisability.

20. Define reliability and validity in research.

    Reliability is consistency — whether the method produces the same results if repeated. Validity is accuracy — whether the method actually measures what it claims to measure and reflects reality.

21. Distinguish correlation from causation.

    A correlation is a statistical association where two variables change together. Causation means one variable directly produces a change in the other. Correlation does not prove causation, as the link may be coincidental or due to a third variable.

22. When interpreting a source, what does it mean to assess its reliability and bias?

    It means judging whether the source is trustworthy by examining its origin and authorship, purpose and possible motives, expertise, date/currency, evidence base, and whether it presents a one-sided or balanced view.

23. What is the difference between the mean, median and mode?

    The mean is the arithmetic average, $\bar{x} = \frac{\sum x}{n}$. The median is the middle value when data are ordered. The mode is the most frequently occurring value. The median is preferred for skewed data like income.

24. What is a dissertation in Advanced Higher Modern Studies, and what is required to produce a strong one?

    It is an extended, independent research project (around 4,000 words) on a chosen issue. A strong dissertation requires a clear focused research question, a balanced argument using a range of reliable sources and evidence, analysis and synthesis, evaluation of competing viewpoints, accurate referencing, and a reasoned conclusion.

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