UGC NET Psycology Personality, Motivation, Emotion, Stress, and Coping Syllabus

What are the three levels and six stages of Kohlberg's theory of moral development?

Preconventional (1: obedience/punishment, 2: instrumental/self-interest), Conventional (3: good boy/nice girl interpersonal, 4: law and order), Postconventional (5: social contract, 6: universal ethical principles).

What method did Kohlberg use to study moral reasoning and what mattered most?

He presented moral dilemmas (e.g., the Heinz dilemma) and analyzed the reasoning behind the decision rather than the decision itself.

How is an instinct defined in motivation theory?

An innate, unlearned, fixed pattern of behavior characteristic of a species and triggered by specific stimuli (e.g., McDougall's instinct theory listed instincts as the basis of behavior).

Distinguish between a need and a drive in motivation.

A need is a physiological or psychological deficiency/requirement; a drive is the aroused internal state of tension or arousal produced by that need which energizes behavior to reduce it.

What is Hull's Drive-Reduction theory of motivation?

Physiological needs create drives that produce arousal; behavior that reduces the drive (restoring homeostasis) is reinforced. Hull's formula: Behavior potential = Drive x Habit strength (sEr = sHr x D).

What does Arousal theory (Yerkes-Dodson law) state about motivation and performance?

People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal; performance is best at moderate arousal and declines when arousal is too low or too high, with the optimum being lower for difficult tasks.

How do incentives differ from drives as motivators?

Drives are internal push factors (need-based tension), whereas incentives are external pull factors—rewards or goals in the environment that attract behavior toward them.

What are the stages of the motivational cycle?

Need (deficiency) → Drive/Arousal (tension energizing action) → Instrumental behavior (goal-directed activity) → Goal/Incentive attainment → Need reduction/Relief (return to equilibrium).

How does the ethological perspective explain motivation?

It studies innate, species-specific behavior in natural settings, using concepts like fixed action patterns, sign stimuli/releasers, and innate releasing mechanisms (Lorenz and Tinbergen).

What is the S-R Cognitive approach to motivation associated with Tolman?

Motivation involves purposive, goal-directed behavior guided by cognitive expectancies and cognitive maps; behavior is shaped by anticipated outcomes, not just stimulus-response bonds (latent learning).

What is the humanistic theory of motivation centered on?

Growth motivation and self-actualization—the drive to fulfill one's potential; Maslow distinguished deficiency needs (D-needs) from being/growth needs (B-needs).

List Maslow's hierarchy of needs from lowest to highest.

Physiological, Safety, Love/Belongingness, Esteem, and Self-actualization (later extended with cognitive, aesthetic, and self-transcendence needs).

What is Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking and its four components?

A trait reflecting the need for varied, novel, intense experiences and willingness to take risks; its four subscales are Thrill and Adventure Seeking, Experience Seeking, Disinhibition, and Boredom Susceptibility.

What is meant by motivational competence?

The ability to effectively manage and align one's own motives, emotions, and goals with situational demands to achieve desired outcomes—matching implicit/explicit motives and self-regulating action.

What is self-regulation in motivation?

The capacity to monitor and control one's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to pursue goals, involving goal-setting, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement (related to delayed gratification).

What is 'Flow' according to Csikszentmihalyi?

An optimal state of complete absorption and intrinsic enjoyment in an activity, occurring when the challenge of a task matches the person's skill level, with focused attention and loss of self-consciousness.

What are the major physiological correlates of emotion?

Autonomic nervous system activity (heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, sweating/GSR), hormonal changes (adrenaline/cortisol), and brain structures—especially the amygdala, hypothalamus, and limbic system.

What does the James-Lange theory of emotion propose?

Emotion results from the perception of bodily/physiological changes; we feel afraid because we tremble and run, rather than trembling because we are afraid (stimulus → arousal → emotion).

What does the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion propose?

Physiological arousal and the subjective experience of emotion occur simultaneously and independently when the thalamus relays information to the cortex and body at once (stimulus → arousal + emotion together).

What is the Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion?

Emotion arises from physiological arousal plus a cognitive label/interpretation of that arousal based on the situation; the same arousal can yield different emotions depending on the appraisal.

What is the core idea of cognitive appraisal theory of emotion (Lazarus)?

Emotion depends on how an event is appraised; primary appraisal evaluates relevance/threat, and secondary appraisal evaluates coping resources—cognition precedes and determines emotion.

What is emotion regulation and Gross's two broad strategy types?

The processes by which people influence which emotions they have and how they experience/express them. Gross distinguishes antecedent-focused strategies (e.g., cognitive reappraisal) from response-focused strategies (e.g., expressive suppression).

How do cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression compare as emotion regulation strategies?

Reappraisal (reinterpreting a situation) occurs early, reduces negative emotion experience, and is adaptive; suppression (inhibiting outward expression) occurs late, fails to reduce inner experience, and carries cognitive/social costs.

How is stress defined and what are its two main types as 'eustress' and 'distress'?

Stress is a state of physical/psychological tension from demands appraised as taxing one's resources. Eustress is positive, motivating stress; distress is negative, harmful stress that impairs functioning.

What are common sources (stressors) of stress?

Frustration, conflict, pressure, life changes, daily hassles, environmental stressors, and major life events—often grouped as cataclysmic, personal, and background stressors.

What are the four classic types of motivational/psychological conflict?

Approach-approach (two desirable goals), Avoidance-avoidance (two undesirable options), Approach-avoidance (one goal with both positive and negative features), and Double/multiple approach-avoidance.

What are the three stages of Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model of stress?

Alarm reaction (fight-or-flight arousal), Resistance (body adapts and copes with sustained stressor), and Exhaustion (resources depleted, vulnerability to illness/breakdown).

What is the Lazarus and Folkman transactional model of stress?

Stress is a transaction between person and environment determined by appraisal: primary appraisal (Is it threatening?) and secondary appraisal (Can I cope?), which together determine the stress response and coping.

Describe Type A, B, C, and D behavior patterns.

Type A: competitive, hostile, time-urgent, impatient (coronary risk). Type B: relaxed, easygoing, patient. Type C: suppresses emotions, conforming, helpless (linked to cancer-proneness). Type D: 'distressed'—negative affectivity plus social inhibition (cardiac risk).

Distinguish problem-focused from emotion-focused coping (Lazarus & Folkman).

Problem-focused coping targets the stressor itself to change or remove it (planning, action); emotion-focused coping manages the emotional distress caused by the stressor (reappraisal, seeking support, relaxation).

Name key stress management strategies used to reduce or manage stress.

Relaxation techniques (deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation), meditation/mindfulness, biofeedback, exercise, time management, cognitive restructuring, social support, and assertiveness training.