UGC NET Sociology Research Methodology and Methods Syllabus

Define inductive reasoning in research.

Induction reasons from specific observations to general conclusions — building theory or generalisations out of accumulated empirical data (bottom-up logic).

Define deductive reasoning in research.

Deduction reasons from general premises/theory to specific testable hypotheses, which are then checked against data (top-down logic) — theory first, then test.

What is the relationship between induction and deduction in the research cycle?

They are complementary: deduction derives and tests hypotheses from theory, while induction generates theory from data. Most research alternates between them (the 'wheel of science'), and abduction infers best explanations.

What is a 'fact' in social science?

A fact is an empirically verifiable observation or state of affairs accepted as true on the basis of evidence — the basic unit of data, though always selected and interpreted through concepts.

What is a 'concept' in social research?

A concept is an abstract idea or mental construct that names and classifies a category of phenomena (e.g., 'alienation', 'caste', 'role') — the building block of theory linking ideas to observable indicators.

What is a 'theory' in social science?

A theory is a logically interrelated set of concepts and propositions that explains and predicts relationships among phenomena, organising facts into a coherent account of how and why something occurs.

What is Robert Merton's concept of 'middle-range theory'?

Theories that lie between minor working hypotheses and all-encompassing grand theory — limited in scope, testable, and connecting empirical research with abstract theorising (e.g., reference group theory).

What is a hypothesis in research?

A hypothesis is a tentative, testable statement predicting a relationship between two or more variables, derived from theory and subject to empirical verification or refutation.

Distinguish the null hypothesis (H0) from the alternative hypothesis (H1).

The null hypothesis (H0) states there is no relationship/difference between variables; the alternative hypothesis (H1) asserts a relationship/difference exists. Statistical testing seeks to reject H0.

How does a research question differ from a research objective?

A research question states the specific issue the study seeks to answer (interrogative form); a research objective states what the study aims to achieve (action form, e.g., 'to examine', 'to compare').

Distinguish independent from dependent variables.

The independent variable is the presumed cause/influencing factor (manipulated or predictor); the dependent variable is the effect/outcome that changes in response to the independent variable.

What is ethnography as a research method?

Ethnography is the in-depth, first-hand study of a community or group in its natural setting through prolonged immersion and participant observation, aiming to describe its culture from the insiders' point of view.

What is the difference between 'emic' and 'etic' perspectives in ethnography?

The emic perspective describes a culture in terms of the insiders' own meanings and categories; the etic perspective uses the analyst's external, comparative scientific categories.

What is the survey method?

The survey is a quantitative method of collecting standardised information from a (usually large, sampled) population via questionnaires or structured interviews, enabling statistical generalisation and study of distributions and correlations.

What are key strengths and limitations of the survey method?

Strengths: large samples, generalisability, standardisation, quantification, comparability. Limitations: superficiality, low validity of meaning, response bias, inflexibility, and difficulty capturing context and social process.

What is the historical (comparative-historical) method in sociology?

It uses historical records and documents to study social phenomena and change over time, tracing the origins and development of institutions and explaining present forms through their past (e.g., Weber's studies of religion and capitalism).

What is the comparative method in sociology?

The systematic comparison of two or more societies, groups or institutions to identify similarities, differences and causal patterns — a substitute for experiment in establishing generalisations (Durkheim called it sociology's essential method).

What were Durkheim's 'rules' for the comparative method, especially the method of concomitant variation?

Durkheim favoured concomitant variation: if two phenomena vary together regularly, one may cause the other or both share a common cause — used to establish sociological laws without controlled experiments.

What is sampling in research?

Sampling is the process of selecting a subset (sample) of units from a larger population so that the sample can be studied and its findings generalised to the whole population, saving time and cost.

Distinguish probability from non-probability sampling.

In probability sampling every unit has a known, non-zero chance of selection (random basis), allowing statistical inference. In non-probability sampling selection is non-random (judgment/convenience), so generalisation is limited.

Name and briefly define four types of probability sampling.

(1) Simple random — every unit equal chance; (2) Systematic — every kth unit from a random start; (3) Stratified — random sampling within homogeneous sub-groups; (4) Cluster — random selection of whole groups/clusters.

Name four types of non-probability sampling.

(1) Convenience/accidental, (2) Purposive/judgmental, (3) Quota, and (4) Snowball (chain-referral) sampling.

What is snowball sampling and when is it used?

A non-probability technique where existing participants refer further participants, building the sample like a snowball — used for hidden, hard-to-reach or rare populations (e.g., drug users, undocumented migrants).

What is the difference between sampling error and non-sampling error?

Sampling error is the discrepancy between sample and population due to studying only a subset (reduced by larger/random samples). Non-sampling error arises from flaws in measurement, coverage, non-response, recording or processing — present even in a census.

Distinguish a questionnaire from a schedule.

A questionnaire is filled in by the respondent themselves (often mailed); a schedule is a set of questions filled in by the investigator/enumerator during a face-to-face interview, allowing clarification and higher response rates.

Distinguish open-ended from closed-ended questions.

Open-ended questions let respondents answer freely in their own words (rich but hard to code); closed-ended questions offer fixed response options (easy to quantify but restrictive).

What is a Likert scale?

A Likert scale measures attitudes by asking respondents to rate their level of agreement with statements on an ordered set of categories (e.g., strongly agree to strongly disagree), typically scored 1–5.

Distinguish structured, unstructured and semi-structured interviews.

Structured interviews use a fixed set of standardised questions; unstructured interviews are flexible, open and conversational; semi-structured interviews use a guide of themes with freedom to probe and reorder.

What is participant observation and its main types?

Participant observation is studying a group by taking part in its activities while observing. Types per Gold: complete participant, participant-as-observer, observer-as-participant, complete observer — varying in involvement and disclosure.

What is the case study method and its chief strengths and weaknesses?

An intensive, holistic study of a single unit (person, group, institution, event) in depth and context. Strength: rich, detailed, holistic understanding; Weakness: limited generalisability and possible subjectivity.

What is the difference between reliability and validity in measurement?

Reliability is the consistency/repeatability of a measure (same results on repetition). Validity is whether the measure actually captures what it claims to measure. A measure can be reliable yet invalid, but not valid without being reliable.

Distinguish the mean, median and mode as measures of central tendency.

Mean = arithmetic average (sum/N); Median = middle value when data are ordered; Mode = most frequently occurring value. The median is preferred for skewed data, the mode for nominal/categorical data.

What is standard deviation and what does it indicate?

Standard deviation is the square root of the variance — the average distance of values from the mean. It measures dispersion/spread: a small SD means values cluster near the mean, a large SD means wide scatter.

What does the correlation coefficient (Karl Pearson's r) measure, and what is its range?

Pearson's r measures the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 (perfect negative) through 0 (no linear relationship) to +1 (perfect positive). Correlation does not imply causation.

What is the chi-square (χ²) test used for?

The chi-square test is a non-parametric test of association between two categorical variables, comparing observed frequencies with expected frequencies to assess whether they differ significantly (test of independence/goodness of fit).

What is the level of significance (e.g., p < 0.05) in statistical testing?

It is the probability threshold for rejecting the null hypothesis — the maximum acceptable risk of a Type I error. p < 0.05 means there is less than a 5% chance the observed result occurred by chance.

Distinguish Type I and Type II errors.

Type I error (alpha): rejecting a true null hypothesis (false positive). Type II error (beta): failing to reject a false null hypothesis (false negative).

Distinguish qualitative from quantitative data analysis.

Quantitative analysis uses numerical data and statistics to test hypotheses and measure relationships; qualitative analysis interprets non-numerical data (texts, transcripts, observations) through coding and themes to understand meaning.

What is 'interpretation' in the stage of data analysis?

Interpretation is the process of drawing inferences and meaning from analysed data — explaining what the findings signify, linking them to theory and the research questions, and identifying their broader implications.

What are the standard components of a social science research report?

Typically: title; abstract; introduction/statement of problem; review of literature; objectives and hypotheses; methodology; data analysis and findings; discussion/interpretation; conclusion and suggestions; references/bibliography; and appendices.