TEFL/TESOL Certification Foundations of TEFL/TESOL and Language Acquisition Theory Syllabus

What are the five hypotheses that make up Krashen's Monitor Model?

(1) The Acquisition–Learning Hypothesis, (2) the Monitor Hypothesis, (3) the Natural Order Hypothesis, (4) the Input Hypothesis, and (5) the Affective Filter Hypothesis.

In Krashen's theory, what is the distinction between 'acquisition' and 'learning'?

Acquisition is a subconscious, natural process (like a child's L1 development) that produces fluency; learning is conscious knowledge of explicit rules. Krashen claims only acquisition drives spontaneous communication.

State Krashen's Input Hypothesis, including the famous formula.

Learners acquire language when they receive comprehensible input slightly beyond their current level, expressed as 'i + 1' (current competence 'i' plus one increment).

What does the 'Monitor' do in Krashen's Monitor Hypothesis?

Consciously learned knowledge acts as an editor/'monitor' that checks and corrects output. It works only when the speaker has time, focuses on form, and knows the rule.

State Krashen's Affective Filter Hypothesis.

Negative emotions—high anxiety, low motivation, low self-confidence—raise an 'affective filter' that blocks comprehensible input from being acquired; a low filter allows acquisition.

What does Krashen's Natural Order Hypothesis claim?

Grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable natural order that is roughly the same for all learners and is not determined by the order in which they are taught.

Whose hypothesis built on Krashen by arguing that meaningful, negotiated conversation drives acquisition, and what is it called?

Michael Long's Interaction Hypothesis: comprehensible input becomes most useful when learners negotiate meaning through interaction (clarification requests, confirmation checks, modifications).

What is 'negotiation of meaning' in the Interaction Hypothesis?

The interactive process where speakers modify and restructure their talk—through clarification requests, comprehension checks, and confirmation checks—to resolve communication breakdowns and make input comprehensible.

Who proposed the Output Hypothesis, and what is its central claim?

Merrill Swain. Producing language ('pushed output') is necessary for acquisition because it forces learners to process language syntactically, notice gaps in their knowledge, and test hypotheses—things comprehension alone does not require.

List two specific functions of output according to Swain's Output Hypothesis.

(1) The noticing/triggering function (learners notice gaps between what they want to say and can say); (2) the hypothesis-testing function; (3) the metalinguistic/reflective function. (Any two.)

On whose work is the Sociocultural perspective on SLA based, and what is its key construct?

Lev Vygotsky. Its key construct is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)—the gap between what a learner can do alone and what they can do with guided help (scaffolding).

Define 'scaffolding' in sociocultural SLA theory.

Temporary, graduated support given by a more knowledgeable other (teacher or peer) that enables a learner to perform within their ZPD, then is gradually withdrawn as the learner becomes independent.

What is the core claim of Usage-Based theories of language acquisition?

Language is learned from exposure to actual usage: through frequency, pattern detection, and general cognitive abilities, learners build constructions from input—rejecting a separate innate grammar module.

What is the difference between integrative and instrumental motivation (Gardner & Lambert)?

Integrative motivation is the desire to learn a language to identify with, integrate into, or belong to the target-language community/culture; instrumental motivation is learning for practical gain (a job, exam, promotion).

What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in language learning?

Intrinsic motivation comes from internal enjoyment, interest, or satisfaction in learning itself; extrinsic motivation comes from external rewards or pressures such as grades, money, or avoiding punishment.

In Gardner's socio-educational model, how is 'attitude' related to language achievement?

Positive attitudes toward the target language, its speakers, and the learning situation support motivation and predict higher achievement; negative attitudes hinder it.

What is the difference between a 'field-independent' and a 'field-dependent' cognitive/learning style?

Field-independent learners analyze parts separately from the whole and excel at decontextualized, analytic tasks (e.g., grammar); field-dependent learners perceive holistically and tend to do well in communicative, socially embedded tasks.

Distinguish the three perceptual learning-style modalities commonly cited (VAK).

Visual (learning through seeing—images, text, charts), Auditory (learning through hearing—listening, speaking), and Kinesthetic/tactile (learning through movement, doing, hands-on activity).

In learning-strategy research, what is the difference between metacognitive and cognitive strategies?

Metacognitive strategies manage learning (planning, monitoring, self-evaluating); cognitive strategies operate directly on the material (note-taking, summarizing, analyzing, practicing).

What is the difference between a 'learning strategy' and a 'communication strategy'?

Learning strategies are techniques used to acquire/retain the language (e.g., flashcards, summarizing); communication strategies are techniques used to keep a conversation going despite gaps (e.g., paraphrasing, circumlocution, gesture).

State the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) as applied to second-language acquisition.

The claim that there is a biologically determined window (often cited as ending around puberty) after which acquiring a language—especially native-like pronunciation—becomes much more difficult or impossible.

In what one area do younger L2 learners most reliably outperform older learners, and in what area do older learners often have an early advantage?

Younger learners most reliably achieve native-like pronunciation/accent and ultimate attainment; older learners (and adults) often learn grammar and vocabulary faster in the early stages due to cognitive maturity.

What is language-learning aptitude, and name one component of it.

Aptitude is a natural, relatively stable capacity that predicts the rate of language learning. Components include phonemic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, inductive language-learning ability, and rote memory (any one).

Distinguish facilitating from debilitating anxiety in language learning.

Facilitating (helpful) anxiety motivates and energizes the learner to rise to a challenge; debilitating (harmful) anxiety causes avoidance, freezing, and impaired performance. 'Foreign language anxiety' usually refers to the debilitating kind.

How does the personality trait of risk-taking/extroversion typically relate to L2 speaking?

Greater willingness to take risks and (often) extroversion are linked to more speaking practice, output, and oral fluency, because such learners attempt communication despite fear of making mistakes—though introverts may excel in accuracy and reading/writing.

Define positive transfer in L2 learning and give an example.

Positive transfer is when a feature of the learner's first language matches the target language and aids learning—e.g., a Spanish speaker easily using cognates like 'animal' or applying similar Latin-alphabet spelling to English.

Define negative transfer (L1 interference) and give an example.

Negative transfer is when an L1 feature is incorrectly applied to the L2, causing an error—e.g., a Spanish speaker saying 'I have 20 years' instead of 'I am 20 years old,' transferring the Spanish 'tener' structure.

What is Contrastive Analysis, and what did it predict about errors?

Contrastive Analysis compares L1 and L2 structures; it predicted that areas where the two languages differ would cause difficulty/errors, while similar areas would transfer positively. (Its strong predictive claim was later shown to be incomplete.)

Give a typical pronunciation error for Japanese-background English learners and its L1 source.

Difficulty distinguishing /r/ and /l/ (e.g., 'rice' vs 'lice'), because Japanese has a single liquid sound rather than the separate /r/ and /l/ phonemes of English.

Give a typical English error for Arabic-background learners linked to L1 phonology.

Confusing /p/ and /b/ (e.g., 'park' vs 'bark'), because Arabic lacks the /p/ phoneme; also adding vowels to break up English consonant clusters.

What is a common article (a/an/the) error pattern, and which L1 backgrounds often show it?

Omitting or overusing articles. Speakers of languages without an article system—such as Russian, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean—frequently drop 'a/the' or insert them where English does not require them.

In Corder's framework, what is the key difference between an 'error' and a 'mistake'?

An error is a systematic deviation reflecting a gap in the learner's underlying competence (they don't yet know the rule); a mistake is a one-off slip in performance (lapse, fatigue, distraction) that the learner can self-correct because they actually know the rule.

What is a 'developmental error,' and why is it significant?

A developmental error is one that arises from the natural process of building up the L2 system (e.g., overgeneralizing '-ed': 'goed,' 'eated'), similar to errors children make in their L1. It signals normal, healthy progress rather than L1 interference.

What is 'interlanguage' (Selinker), and what is 'fossilization'?

Interlanguage is the learner's evolving, rule-governed language system that is between L1 and target L2. Fossilization is when certain non-target features become permanently fixed and stop developing despite continued exposure.

What is overgeneralization as an error source? Give an example.

Overgeneralization is applying a learned L2 rule too broadly to cases where it doesn't apply—e.g., forming all past tenses with '-ed' ('runned,' 'buyed') after learning the regular past-tense rule. It is an intralingual, developmental error, not L1 transfer.

What does it mean to avoid 'ethnocentrism' as an English teacher?

It means not treating one's own culture, dialect, or 'native-speaker' norms as inherently superior, and instead respecting learners' cultures and recognizing the validity of World Englishes and learners' communicative goals.

Why should teachers respect and not denigrate learners' home/first language (L1)?

Because the L1 is tied to learners' identity and family, can be a resource (for transfer, comparison, and scaffolding), and disparaging it harms motivation, self-esteem, and the affective climate—raising the affective filter and hindering acquisition.

What is the difference between 'subtractive' and 'additive' bilingualism, and which should teachers aim for?

Subtractive bilingualism is when learning the L2 replaces/erodes the L1; additive bilingualism is when the L2 is added while the L1 is maintained and valued. Teachers should aim for additive bilingualism, respecting the home language.

What is 'World Englishes' and why is it relevant to avoiding ethnocentrism?

World Englishes recognizes the many legitimate, regional varieties of English (Indian, Nigerian, Singaporean, etc.) as valid in their own right rather than 'wrong' versions of British/American English—supporting respect for learners and local norms.