TEFL/TESOL Certification English Language Systems: Grammar, Lexis, and Phonology Syllabus

How do you report yes/no questions versus wh-questions in indirect speech?

Use statement word order (no inversion, no auxiliary 'do'). Yes/no questions are introduced by 'if'/'whether'; wh-questions keep the wh-word: 'Where do you live?' → 'She asked where I lived.'

Name the eight traditional parts of speech in English.

Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, and determiner/article (traditionally 'interjection' is also listed).

What is the difference between an open word class and a closed word class?

Open classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) readily admit new members. Closed classes (pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, determiners, auxiliaries) have a fixed, small membership that rarely changes.

Define the three main processes of word formation: affixation, compounding, and conversion.

Affixation adds prefixes/suffixes (happy→unhappy, happiness). Compounding joins two words (black + board → blackboard). Conversion changes word class without changing form (the verb 'to email' from the noun 'email').

What is the difference between a prefix and a suffix, and which typically changes word class?

A prefix is added before the root (un-, re-, dis-) and usually changes meaning, not class; a suffix is added after the root (-ness, -ly, -ation) and often changes the word class (e.g., happy→happiness).

What is the difference between a definite and an indefinite article, and when is each used?

Definite 'the' refers to a specific, identifiable noun known to speaker and listener. Indefinite 'a/an' refers to a non-specific or first-mentioned singular countable noun. 'A' precedes consonant sounds, 'an' precedes vowel sounds.

When is the zero article (no article) used in English?

With plural and uncountable nouns used in a general sense ('Dogs are loyal', 'Water is essential'), with most proper nouns, and in many fixed expressions (go to bed, at school, by car).

What are determiners and how do they differ from adjectives?

Determiners (articles, demonstratives, possessives, quantifiers, numbers) precede a noun to specify reference or quantity and are part of a closed class; unlike adjectives, they don't describe qualities, can't be graded, and only one core determiner fills the slot per noun phrase.

Distinguish a phrase from a clause.

A phrase is a group of words functioning as a unit but lacking a subject–verb pairing (e.g., 'the tall man', 'in the garden'). A clause contains a subject and a finite verb (e.g., 'she laughed').

What is the difference between an independent (main) clause and a dependent (subordinate) clause?

An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence; a dependent clause cannot stand alone and is introduced by a subordinator (because, although, that, which).

Name and define the four sentence types by clause structure.

Simple: one independent clause. Compound: two+ independent clauses joined by a coordinator. Complex: one independent + one+ dependent clause. Compound-complex: two+ independent clauses plus at least one dependent clause.

What is the difference between coordination and subordination?

Coordination links elements of equal grammatical rank using coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). Subordination links a dependent clause to a main clause using subordinating conjunctions, making one clause grammatically dependent.

What is the difference between a defining (restrictive) and a non-defining (non-restrictive) relative clause?

A defining clause gives essential information identifying the noun and takes no commas ('The man who called is here'). A non-defining clause adds extra, non-essential information, is set off by commas, and cannot use 'that'.

Which relative pronouns are used for people, things, and possession, and when can the pronoun be omitted?

People: who/whom; things: which; both: that; possession: whose. The relative pronoun can be omitted when it is the object of a defining relative clause (e.g., 'the book (that) I read').

What is the difference between a gerund and an infinitive, and give a verb that changes meaning with each?

A gerund is the -ing form used as a noun; the infinitive is 'to' + base verb. Some verbs change meaning: 'stop smoking' (quit the activity) vs 'stop to smoke' (pause in order to smoke); similarly 'remember' and 'forget'.

After prepositions and after certain verbs, which form (gerund or infinitive) is required?

After prepositions, always use the gerund ('interested in learning'). Verbs like enjoy, avoid, finish, suggest, mind take a gerund; verbs like want, decide, hope, agree, promise take the infinitive.

In the lexical approach, what does it mean 'to know a word' fully?

Knowing a word involves its form (spelling, pronunciation, word parts), meaning (denotation, connotation, concept), and use (grammatical functions, collocations, register/frequency constraints) — and both receptive and productive command of these.

What is the difference between denotation and connotation of a word?

Denotation is the literal, dictionary meaning of a word; connotation is the emotional or cultural association it carries (e.g., 'thrifty' vs 'stingy' have similar denotation but opposite connotations).

Define synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, and homonymy.

Synonymy: words with similar meaning (big/large). Antonymy: opposite meaning (hot/cold). Hyponymy: a word whose meaning is included in a broader term (rose is a hyponym of flower). Homonymy: words with the same form but unrelated meanings (bank of a river / money bank).

What is a collocation, and name common collocation types?

A collocation is a pair/group of words that naturally occur together more often than chance. Types include adjective+noun ('strong coffee'), verb+noun ('make a decision'), adverb+adjective ('highly likely'), and verb+adverb ('whisper softly').

What are 'lexical chunks' and why are they important for fluency?

Chunks are multi-word units stored and retrieved as wholes — collocations, fixed phrases, idioms, and sentence frames (e.g., 'by the way', 'as far as I'm concerned'). They aid fluency because they reduce processing load and are produced automatically.

What criteria guide selecting and grading vocabulary for a learner's level?

Key criteria are frequency, usefulness/coverage, learnability, learner needs, and teachability. Grading means introducing high-frequency, useful, and conceptually simple items earlier and rarer, more abstract items later.

What is the difference between receptive (passive) and productive (active) vocabulary knowledge?

Receptive knowledge is recognizing and understanding a word when listening or reading; productive knowledge is recalling and using the word correctly when speaking or writing. Receptive vocabulary is typically much larger.

What is the significance of high-frequency word lists like the General Service List or the first 2,000 words?

The most frequent ~2,000 word families provide around 80% coverage of general English text, so they offer the greatest learning return and should be prioritized; academic learners then add the Academic Word List.

What is a phoneme, and how is it distinguished from an allophone?

A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that can distinguish meaning in a language (e.g., /p/ vs /b/ in 'pat'/'bat'). An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme that does not change meaning (e.g., aspirated vs unaspirated /p/).

What is a minimal pair? Give an example.

A minimal pair is two words that differ in only one phoneme and have different meanings, proving that sound is contrastive — e.g., 'ship' /ʃɪp/ and 'sheep' /ʃiːp/, or 'pat' and 'bat'.

What is the IPA and why is it useful for teaching pronunciation?

The International Phonetic Alphabet is a standardized set of symbols where each symbol represents one sound, regardless of spelling. It lets teachers and learners represent pronunciation precisely, overcoming English's inconsistent spelling–sound relationship.

How are English consonants classified (the three descriptors)?

By place of articulation (where, e.g., bilabial, alveolar, velar), manner of articulation (how, e.g., plosive, fricative, nasal), and voicing (whether the vocal cords vibrate — voiced vs voiceless).

What is the difference between a monophthong and a diphthong?

A monophthong is a single, pure vowel sound with no change in quality (e.g., /iː/ in 'see'); a diphthong is a glide from one vowel quality to another within a single syllable (e.g., /aɪ/ in 'my').

What is the schwa /ə/, and why is it important in English?

Schwa is the weak, central, unstressed vowel sound (as in the 'a' of 'about' or 'er' of 'teacher'). It is the most common vowel in English and central to weak forms, rhythm, and natural connected speech.

What is 'connected speech' and name three of its key features.

Connected speech is how sounds change when words run together in natural speech. Key features: linking/liaison (joining sounds across word boundaries), elision (dropping sounds), assimilation (sounds becoming more like neighbours), and weak forms.

Define elision and assimilation in connected speech, with an example of each.

Elision is the omission of a sound, e.g., the /t/ in 'next day' → 'nex day'. Assimilation is a sound changing to resemble an adjacent sound, e.g., 'ten boys' where /n/ becomes /m/ → 'tem boys'.

What are 'weak forms' and 'strong forms' of function words?

Many function words (and, of, to, can, are) have a stressed strong form and an unstressed weak form using schwa. In natural speech the weak form is normal (e.g., 'to' as /tə/), while the strong form is used for emphasis or in isolation.

What is word stress and why does it matter in English?

Word stress is the relative prominence given to one syllable in a multisyllable word (louder, longer, higher pitch). It matters because misplaced stress can impede comprehension and can even change meaning/word class (e.g., 'REcord' noun vs 're CORD' verb).

What does it mean to say English is a 'stress-timed' language?

In stress-timed rhythm, stressed syllables occur at roughly regular intervals, and unstressed syllables between them are compressed (often using weak forms/schwa). This contrasts with syllable-timed languages where each syllable takes roughly equal time.

What is sentence stress, and which words are typically stressed?

Sentence stress is the pattern of prominence across an utterance. Content words (nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs) carrying meaning are normally stressed, while function words (articles, prepositions, auxiliaries, pronouns) are usually unstressed.

What is intonation and what are its main communicative functions?

Intonation is the rise and fall of pitch across an utterance. It signals grammatical function (e.g., statement vs question), attitude/emotion, and information focus, and helps manage discourse (turn-taking, new vs given information).

What do rising and falling intonation typically signal in English?

Falling intonation typically signals completeness, certainty, statements, wh-questions, and commands. Rising intonation typically signals incompleteness, uncertainty, yes/no questions, listing, and inviting a response.

What is the difference between an L1-interference and a developmental pronunciation error?

An L1-interference error stems from transferring the sounds/patterns of the learner's first language (e.g., no /θ/ in L1); a developmental error is a stage many learners pass through regardless of L1. Diagnosis affects which to prioritize and how to remedy.

Name techniques for diagnosing and correcting a pronunciation problem.

Diagnose with minimal-pair discrimination tasks and recorded learner speech. Correct using minimal pair drills, articulatory description/diagrams, modelling and choral/individual drilling, exaggeration, and focused feedback on place/manner/voicing.

What is the difference between cohesion and coherence in a text?

Cohesion is the surface-level grammatical and lexical linking of a text (reference, conjunction, substitution, ellipsis, lexical ties). Coherence is the underlying logical and meaningful organization that makes a text 'hang together' for the reader.

Name the main types of cohesive devices.

Reference (pronouns, 'this', 'the'), substitution (one, do, so), ellipsis (omitting recoverable words), conjunction (however, therefore, and), and lexical cohesion (repetition, synonyms, collocation).

What is anaphoric reference? Give an example.

Anaphoric reference points back to something already mentioned in the text, helping cohesion — e.g., 'Maria arrived late. She had missed the bus,' where 'She' refers back to 'Maria'.

What is register, and what three variables (per Halliday) shape it?

Register is the variety of language appropriate to a context. It is shaped by field (the topic/subject matter), tenor (the relationship between participants and formality), and mode (the channel — spoken or written).

How do formal and informal registers typically differ in vocabulary and grammar?

Formal register favours Latinate vocabulary, full forms, the passive, complete sentences, and impersonality; informal register favours phrasal verbs and shorter Anglo-Saxon words, contractions, ellipsis, and personal pronouns.

What is 'appropriacy' in language use?

Appropriacy is choosing language that fits the social context — the situation, audience, relationship, and purpose — so that it is neither too formal nor too informal. A grammatically correct sentence can still be inappropriate for its context.

What is functional language, and how does it differ from grammatical structure?

Functional language is language organized by what it does — its communicative purpose (e.g., apologizing, inviting, requesting, giving advice). The same function can use different structures, and the same structure can serve different functions.

What is a speech act, and what is the difference between its locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary aspects?

A speech act is an utterance that performs an action. Locutionary = the literal words/meaning; illocutionary = the intended function/force (e.g., a request); perlocutionary = the actual effect on the listener (e.g., they comply).

What is the difference between a direct and an indirect speech act? Give an example.

In a direct speech act, form matches function (imperative 'Close the window' to command). In an indirect speech act, the function differs from the literal form, e.g., the question 'Could you close the window?' functions as a polite request.

What is 'genre' in language teaching, and why is genre awareness important for learners?

A genre is a recognized text type with conventional structure, features, and purpose (e.g., a recipe, business email, narrative, academic essay). Genre awareness helps learners produce and interpret texts that meet the audience's and culture's expectations.

How do spoken and written texts typically differ in their linguistic features?

Spoken texts tend to be more interactive, spontaneous, less lexically dense, with fillers, false starts, ellipsis, and connected speech; written texts are more planned, lexically dense, grammatically complex, and structurally explicit.