Pharm-D Admission Test Biology Syllabus

Why is water described as a polar molecule, and what property results?

Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, giving oxygen a partial negative and hydrogens a partial positive charge. This polarity allows hydrogen bonding and makes water a universal solvent.

List three biologically important properties of water due to hydrogen bonding.

High specific heat capacity (temperature buffering), high heat of vaporization (cooling via evaporation), and strong cohesion/adhesion (supports transport in plants and surface tension).

Why is ice less dense than liquid water, and why is this biologically important?

In ice, hydrogen bonds hold molecules in an open lattice, so ice is less dense and floats. This insulates water bodies, allowing aquatic life to survive beneath the frozen surface.

Write the overall balanced equation for photosynthesis.

6CO2 + 6H2O --light, chlorophyll--> C6H12O6 + 6O2.

Where do the light-dependent and light-independent reactions of photosynthesis occur?

Light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes (grana); the light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle) occur in the stroma of the chloroplast.

What are the products of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis?

ATP, NADPH, and oxygen (O2, from photolysis/splitting of water).

What is the role of the Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions)?

It uses ATP and NADPH to fix CO2 into glucose. CO2 combines with RuBP (catalyzed by RuBisCO) to ultimately produce G3P/sugars; it occurs in the stroma.

Which pigment is the primary photosynthetic pigment, and what wavelengths does it absorb best?

Chlorophyll a is the primary pigment; it absorbs mainly in the blue-violet (~430 nm) and red (~660 nm) regions and reflects green light.

Write the overall equation for aerobic respiration.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (ATP).

Name the four stages of aerobic respiration and where each occurs.

Glycolysis (cytoplasm), link reaction/pyruvate oxidation (mitochondrial matrix), Krebs cycle (matrix), and oxidative phosphorylation/electron transport chain (inner mitochondrial membrane).

What are the products of glycolysis from one glucose molecule?

2 pyruvate (3-carbon), a net gain of 2 ATP, and 2 NADH. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and does not require oxygen.

What is the net ATP yield from the complete aerobic respiration of one glucose molecule?

Approximately 36-38 ATP molecules in total.

Compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration in terms of products in muscle and yeast.

Aerobic: glucose -> CO2 + H2O + ~38 ATP. Anaerobic in muscle: glucose -> lactic acid + 2 ATP. Anaerobic in yeast (fermentation): glucose -> ethanol + CO2 + 2 ATP.

Why is ATP called the 'energy currency' of the cell?

ATP is the universal, immediate energy carrier; hydrolysis of its terminal phosphate bond releases energy used to power cellular work. It is continuously regenerated from ADP + Pi.

Describe the structure of an ATP molecule.

ATP = adenine base + ribose sugar + three phosphate groups. The bonds between the phosphate groups are high-energy bonds whose hydrolysis releases energy (ATP -> ADP + Pi).

What is the general structure of a virus?

A virus consists of a nucleic acid core (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat called a capsid; some have an outer lipid envelope. They lack cytoplasm, organelles, and ribosomes.

Why are viruses considered obligate intracellular parasites and not fully 'living'?

They cannot reproduce, metabolize, or carry out life processes on their own; they must infect a host cell and use its machinery to replicate. Outside a host they are inert.

Differentiate the lytic and lysogenic cycles of a bacteriophage.

Lytic cycle: virus replicates immediately and lyses (bursts) the host cell, releasing new viruses. Lysogenic cycle: viral DNA integrates into the host genome (prophage) and replicates silently with the host until induced into the lytic cycle.

What are the main characteristics of Kingdom Monera?

Prokaryotic, unicellular organisms lacking a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; cell wall present (often peptidoglycan in bacteria); includes bacteria and cyanobacteria.

Differentiate Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

Gram-positive have a thick peptidoglycan cell wall and stain purple/violet. Gram-negative have a thin peptidoglycan layer plus an outer membrane and stain pink/red after Gram staining.

Classify bacteria by shape with their names.

Cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), spirilla/spirochetes (spiral/helical), and vibrio (comma-shaped).

What are the main characteristics of Kingdom Protista?

Mostly unicellular eukaryotes (some colonial/multicellular); aquatic or moist environments; includes protozoa, algae, and slime molds. They can be autotrophic, heterotrophic, or both.

What are the defining features of Kingdom Fungi?

Eukaryotic, heterotrophic (saprophytic/parasitic) organisms with cell walls made of chitin; mostly multicellular (hyphae forming mycelium); reproduce by spores; store food as glycogen.

What are the two main divisions of Kingdom Plantae based on vascular tissue?

Non-vascular plants (Bryophytes, e.g., mosses, liverworts) lacking true xylem/phloem, and vascular plants (Tracheophytes, e.g., ferns, gymnosperms, angiosperms) with xylem and phloem.

Differentiate gymnosperms and angiosperms.

Gymnosperms bear naked seeds (not enclosed in fruit), e.g., conifers/pines. Angiosperms are flowering plants with seeds enclosed in a fruit (ovary).

How do monocots and dicots differ?

Monocots: one cotyledon, parallel leaf venation, floral parts in multiples of 3, scattered vascular bundles, fibrous roots. Dicots: two cotyledons, net/reticulate venation, floral parts in 4s or 5s, ringed vascular bundles, taproot.

Differentiate diploblastic and triploblastic animals.

Diploblastic animals have two germ layers (ectoderm and endoderm), e.g., cnidarians. Triploblastic animals have three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm), e.g., flatworms to chordates.

What are the main characteristics of Phylum Chordata?

At some stage they possess a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal gill slits, and a post-anal tail.

List the levels of biological classification (taxonomic hierarchy) from broadest to most specific.

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.

What is binomial nomenclature, and who introduced it?

A two-name Latin naming system (Genus + species) introduced by Carolus Linnaeus. The genus is capitalized, species lowercase, and both are italicized or underlined (e.g., Homo sapiens).

What are the three domains in the modern (Woese) classification system?

Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.

Where does chemical digestion of starch, protein, and fat begin in humans?

Starch digestion begins in the mouth (salivary amylase); protein digestion begins in the stomach (pepsin in acidic conditions); fat digestion mainly begins in the small intestine (lipase, aided by bile).

What is the role of bile in digestion, and where is it produced and stored?

Bile emulsifies fats (breaks large fat droplets into smaller ones to increase surface area for lipase) and neutralizes stomach acid. It is produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder.

Where does most absorption of digested food occur, and what adaptation increases its efficiency?

In the small intestine (mainly the ileum). Its inner surface has villi and microvilli that hugely increase surface area, plus a rich blood and lymph supply for absorption.

What is the function of the alveoli in the human respiratory system?

Alveoli are tiny air sacs that are the site of gaseous exchange. Their thin walls (one cell thick), moist surface, and large surface area with surrounding capillaries allow rapid diffusion of O2 and CO2.

Describe the mechanism of inspiration (breathing in) in humans.

The diaphragm contracts and flattens, and the external intercostal muscles contract raising the ribs; thoracic volume increases, lung pressure falls below atmospheric, so air rushes in.

Trace the path of air from the nose to the alveoli.

Nasal cavity -> pharynx -> larynx -> trachea -> bronchi -> bronchioles -> alveoli.

Name the four chambers of the human heart and the type of blood each handles.

Right atrium and right ventricle handle deoxygenated blood; left atrium and left ventricle handle oxygenated blood.

What is the function of the atrioventricular (bicuspid/tricuspid) valves and semilunar valves?

Atrioventricular valves (tricuspid on right, bicuspid/mitral on left) prevent backflow from ventricles to atria. Semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic) prevent backflow from arteries back into ventricles.

Differentiate arteries, veins, and capillaries.

Arteries carry blood away from the heart (thick muscular walls, high pressure, usually oxygenated). Veins carry blood to the heart (thinner walls, valves, low pressure). Capillaries are one-cell-thick vessels where exchange of materials occurs.

What is double circulation in humans?

Blood passes through the heart twice per complete circuit: pulmonary circulation (heart to lungs and back) and systemic circulation (heart to body and back). This keeps oxygenated and deoxygenated blood separate.

What is the function of hemoglobin in blood?

Hemoglobin (in red blood cells) binds and transports oxygen as oxyhemoglobin from lungs to tissues, and helps carry some carbon dioxide and buffer blood pH.

What are the main functions of the lymphatic system?

Returns excess tissue fluid (lymph) to the blood, absorbs fats from the intestine (via lacteals), and contains lymphocytes that fight infection (immune defense).

Differentiate active and passive immunity.

Active immunity: the body produces its own antibodies after exposure to an antigen (infection or vaccination); long-lasting. Passive immunity: ready-made antibodies are received from another source (e.g., mother to fetus, antiserum); short-lived.

What is the difference between an antigen and an antibody?

An antigen is a foreign substance (often a protein) that triggers an immune response. An antibody is a protein (immunoglobulin) produced by B-lymphocytes that specifically binds and neutralizes that antigen.

What is the difference between xylem and phloem in plants?

Xylem transports water and dissolved minerals upward from roots to leaves (dead cells, lignified). Phloem transports food (sucrose) made in leaves to other parts (living cells, translocation, bidirectional).

What is transpiration, and what is the transpiration pull?

Transpiration is the loss of water vapor from aerial plant parts (mainly through stomata). Transpiration pull is the suction force created by water evaporation that draws water up the xylem (cohesion-tension).

What role do stomata and guard cells play in transport in plants?

Stomata are pores (mainly on leaf undersides) for gas exchange and transpiration. Guard cells flank each stoma and open/close it by changing turgor: turgid guard cells open the stoma, flaccid guard cells close it.