English Grammar & Writing Sentence Structure & Syntax Syllabus

When is an appositive phrase set off with commas versus not?

A nonessential (nonrestrictive) appositive that merely adds extra information is set off with commas: "Paris, the capital of France, is lovely." An essential (restrictive) appositive needed to identify the noun takes no commas: "The poet Frost wrote it."

What is a clause?

A clause is a group of words containing both a subject and a predicate (verb). Clauses are the building blocks of sentences and are classified as independent or dependent.

What is an independent (main) clause?

An independent clause has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought; it can stand alone as a sentence. Example: "The sun set."

What is a dependent (subordinate) clause?

A dependent clause has a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone; it depends on an independent clause. Example: "because it was raining."

What words typically begin a dependent clause?

Subordinating conjunctions (because, although, since, when, if, while) or relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, that) usually introduce dependent clauses.

What is a noun clause?

A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions as a noun—serving as a subject, object, or complement. Example: "What she said surprised everyone" (subject).

What words commonly introduce noun clauses?

Words such as that, what, whatever, who, whoever, whom, which, whether, why, how, when, and where commonly introduce noun clauses. Example: "I know that you are right."

What is an adjective (relative) clause?

An adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or pronoun, usually beginning with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that) or a relative adverb (where, when). Example: "The car that I bought is red."

What is the difference between a restrictive and a nonrestrictive adjective clause?

A restrictive (essential) clause identifies the noun and takes no commas: "Students who study pass." A nonrestrictive (nonessential) clause adds extra info and is set off by commas: "My car, which is old, runs well."

What is an adverbial (adverb) clause?

An adverbial clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adverb, modifying a verb, adjective, or adverb, and begins with a subordinating conjunction. It tells how, when, where, why, or under what condition. Example: "He left because he was tired."

Name four questions an adverbial clause can answer and a subordinating conjunction for each.

When ("after," "before," "when"), Why ("because," "since"), Under what condition ("if," "unless"), How/contrast ("although," "though"). Example: "If it rains, we stay home" answers under what condition.

What is a simple sentence?

A simple sentence contains exactly one independent clause and no dependent clauses. It has one subject-predicate unit (though either may be compound). Example: "Birds fly."

Can a simple sentence have a compound subject or compound predicate? Give an example.

Yes. A simple sentence has one independent clause but may contain a compound subject or predicate. Example: "Tom and Jerry ran and jumped" is still one simple sentence.

What is a compound sentence?

A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses joined together, with no dependent clauses. Example: "I cooked dinner, and she washed the dishes."

What are the three main ways to join the independent clauses of a compound sentence?

1) A comma plus a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS); 2) a semicolon; 3) a semicolon plus a conjunctive adverb (e.g., however, therefore) followed by a comma.

What are the seven coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS)?

For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So.

How do you correctly punctuate two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction?

Place a comma before the coordinating conjunction: "She was tired, but she kept working." Omitting the comma or the conjunction creates a run-on/comma splice.

What is a comma splice, and how can it be fixed?

A comma splice joins two independent clauses with only a comma: "It rained, we stayed home." Fix it by adding a coordinating conjunction, replacing the comma with a semicolon, or making two sentences.

What is a complex sentence?

A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent (subordinate) clause. Example: "Because it rained, we stayed inside."

How is a dependent clause punctuated when it begins a complex sentence versus when it ends one?

When the dependent clause comes first, follow it with a comma: "When she arrived, we ate." When it comes after the independent clause, usually no comma is needed: "We ate when she arrived."

What is a compound-complex sentence?

A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Example: "When the bell rang, the students left, and the teacher locked the door."

Identify the clause structure required for each of the four sentence types by clause count.

Simple = 1 independent, 0 dependent. Compound = 2+ independent, 0 dependent. Complex = 1 independent, 1+ dependent. Compound-complex = 2+ independent, 1+ dependent.

In the sentence "Although she was tired, she finished the report, and she went to bed," what type is it and why?

It is compound-complex: it has two independent clauses ("she finished the report," "she went to bed") joined by "and," plus one dependent clause ("Although she was tired").

What is a declarative sentence?

A declarative sentence makes a statement or expresses an opinion and ends with a period. Example: "The library closes at nine."

How do the four sentence purposes (declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory) differ from the four sentence structures?

Purpose classifies by function/end punctuation (statement, question, command, exclamation). Structure classifies by clause makeup (simple, compound, complex, compound-complex). A sentence has both a purpose and a structure.

What end punctuation does a declarative sentence use, and how does it differ from an interrogative one?

A declarative sentence ends with a period (.) and states a fact, while an interrogative sentence ends with a question mark (?) and asks a question. Compare "You are here." with "Are you here?"

What is a conjunctive adverb, and how is it punctuated between two independent clauses?

A conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, moreover, consequently) links independent clauses. Between two independent clauses it takes a semicolon before it and a comma after: "It was late; therefore, we left."

Distinguish a coordinating conjunction from a subordinating conjunction by the kind of clauses they join.

A coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) joins two equal, independent clauses. A subordinating conjunction (because, although, when) introduces a dependent clause and links it to an independent clause, making it unequal/subordinate.

Why is a participial phrase at the start of a sentence a common source of dangling modifiers?

An introductory participial phrase must modify the subject that immediately follows it; if the intended noun is missing or misplaced, it dangles. Wrong: "Running late, the bus was missed." Correct: "Running late, I missed the bus."

What is the object of a preposition, and what part of speech is it always?

The object of a preposition is the noun or pronoun that ends a prepositional phrase and completes the preposition's meaning. It is always a noun or pronoun. In "on the table," "table" is the object of the preposition "on."