English Grammar & Writing Punctuation & Mechanics Syllabus

How is an appositive punctuated when it is nonrestrictive?

Set it off with commas: "Paris, the capital of France, is beautiful." A restrictive appositive takes no commas: "my friend Sam."

What is the comma rule for introductory words, phrases, and clauses?

Place a comma after an introductory element that precedes the main clause: "However, we disagreed." "After the storm, the sky cleared."

Is a comma required after a very short introductory prepositional phrase?

Often optional for short phrases (e.g., "In 1990 he left"), but a comma is always correct and required if omission causes confusion.

How do you punctuate a direct address (naming the person spoken to)?

Set the name off with commas: "Maria, please sit down." "Let's eat, Grandma." (Commas prevent "Let's eat Grandma.")

What is the core rule for using a semicolon between clauses?

A semicolon joins two closely related independent clauses without a conjunction: "I was tired; I went to bed."

How is a semicolon used with conjunctive adverbs like "however" or "therefore" between two independent clauses?

Semicolon before, comma after: "It rained; however, we still went."

When should you use semicolons instead of commas to separate items in a list?

When the list items themselves contain internal commas: "We visited Paris, France; Rome, Italy; and Bern, Switzerland."

What must be true of the two parts joined by a semicolon (as opposed to a colon)?

Both parts must be independent clauses (complete sentences). A semicolon cannot join an independent clause to a fragment.

What is the primary rule for using a colon?

A colon follows an independent clause to introduce a list, explanation, quotation, or elaboration: "Bring three things: a pen, paper, and ID."

Common error: should you place a colon directly after a verb or preposition, as in "The colors are: red and blue"?

No. The words before a colon must form a complete sentence. Correct: "The colors are red and blue" or "We need three colors: red, blue, and green."

List three conventional (non-clause) uses of the colon.

1) Between hours and minutes ($9{:}30$). 2) Between title and subtitle. 3) After the salutation in a formal letter ("Dear Sir:") and in ratios ($3{:}1$).

What is the difference in length and use between an em dash and an en dash?

The em dash (—) is the longer mark used to set off phrases or show interruption; the en dash (–) is shorter and mainly shows ranges (e.g., "pages 10–20").

Give the main uses of the em dash (—).

To set off a strong parenthetical or explanatory element, mark an abrupt break/interruption, or introduce an emphatic list: "Three friends—Ann, Bob, and Cy—arrived."

What is the primary use of the en dash (–)?

To indicate a span or range of numbers, dates, or times: "1914–1918," "the New York–London flight." It means "to" or "through."

How do em dashes compare to commas and parentheses for setting off information?

Em dashes add the strongest emphasis and are most abrupt; commas are neutral; parentheses de-emphasize (whisper) the enclosed information.

What is the primary function of a hyphen?

To join words or word parts: compound modifiers ("well-known author"), some prefixes, and to divide a word at a line break.

When do you hyphenate a compound adjective, and when do you not?

Hyphenate before the noun ("a well-known writer") but usually not after ("the writer is well known"). Do not hyphenate when the first word ends in "-ly" ("a highly rated film").

How are spelled-out numbers and fractions hyphenated?

Hyphenate compound numbers twenty-one through ninety-nine, and hyphenate fractions used as modifiers: "two-thirds majority," "thirty-five students."

State the rule for forming the possessive of a singular noun.

Add apostrophe + s: "the dog's leash," "Chris's book." Singular nouns take 's even if they end in s (most style guides).

How do you form the possessive of a plural noun ending in -s?

Add only an apostrophe after the s: "the dogs' leashes," "the students' desks."

How do you form the possessive of an irregular plural noun that does not end in -s?

Add apostrophe + s: "the children's toys," "the men's room," "the women's team."

How do you show joint possession versus individual possession for two owners?

Joint: apostrophe on the last name only ("Tom and Jerry's house" = shared). Individual: apostrophe on each name ("Tom's and Jerry's houses" = separate).

Do possessive pronouns (its, hers, yours, theirs, ours) use apostrophes?

No. Possessive pronouns never take an apostrophe: "its tail," "the book is hers." "It's" only means "it is" or "it has."

What does an apostrophe indicate in a contraction?

It marks where letters have been omitted: "do not" → "don't," "cannot" → "can't," "I would" → "I'd," "of the clock" → "o'clock."

Distinguish the contractions and homophones: it's/its, they're/their/there, you're/your, who's/whose.

It's = it is/has; its = possessive. They're = they are; their = possessive; there = place. You're = you are; your = possessive. Who's = who is; whose = possessive.

How do you punctuate a direct quotation of someone's exact words?

Enclose the exact words in quotation marks and set them off with a comma: She said, "I am leaving." The first quoted word is capitalized.

How do you punctuate a split quotation interrupted by a dialogue tag, e.g., "...," he said, "..."?

Use commas to separate the tag, and do not capitalize the continuation if it is the same sentence: "I think," he said, "you are right."

In American English, where do periods and commas go relative to closing quotation marks?

Always INSIDE the closing quotation mark: She said "hello," then "goodbye."

In American English, where do colons and semicolons go relative to closing quotation marks?

Always OUTSIDE the closing quotation mark: He called it "perfect"; I disagreed.

Where do question marks and exclamation points go relative to closing quotation marks?

Inside if they belong to the quotation (Did she say "stop?" → She asked, "Can I go?"); outside if they apply to the whole sentence: Did he really say "no"?

How do you punctuate a quotation within a quotation?

Use single quotation marks inside double ones: She said, "I heard him yell 'fire' twice."

List four categories of words that are always capitalized as proper nouns.

1) People's names/titles before names. 2) Specific places (cities, countries). 3) Days, months, holidays (not seasons). 4) Nationalities, languages, and organizations.

What is the standard rule for capitalization in titles (title case)?

Capitalize the first and last words and all major words; lowercase short articles, coordinating conjunctions, and prepositions (a, an, the, and, of, in) unless first/last.

Are seasons, compass directions, and job titles capitalized?

Seasons (spring) and general directions (drive north) are lowercase. Regions (the South) are capitalized. Job titles are capitalized only directly before a name (President Lincoln vs. the president spoke).

What is the function of parentheses?

To enclose supplementary, nonessential information — an aside, clarification, or example — that the sentence could stand without: "The results (see Table 2) were clear."

What is the primary function of square brackets [ ]?

To enclose editorial insertions, clarifications, or changes within quoted material: "He [the president] resigned." Also to mark "[sic]" for a quoted error.

How do you punctuate around a parenthetical remark that ends a sentence?

Place the sentence's ending period OUTSIDE the closing parenthesis: "We won the game (barely)." A full standalone sentence in parentheses gets its period inside.

What does an ellipsis ( ... ) indicate?

An omission of words from quoted material, or a trailing off/pause in thought or speech. It is three spaced dots: ". . ."

How do you handle an ellipsis when the omission occurs at the end of a complete sentence?

Use the sentence's period plus the three ellipsis dots — effectively four dots: "She left. . . . He stayed." The first dot is the period.

Why should you not begin a quotation with an ellipsis, and when is one needed mid-quote?

An ellipsis is unnecessary at the start because readers assume the quote is an excerpt; use one only to signal words omitted from the middle or end of the quoted passage.