CSS Sociology Methods of Sociological Research Syllabus

What distinguishes a longitudinal study from a cross-sectional study?

A longitudinal study observes the same subjects repeatedly over time; a cross-sectional study examines data from a population at a single point in time.

Define quantitative research.

Research that collects and analyzes numerical data using statistical methods to measure variables, test hypotheses, and generalize findings to larger populations.

Define qualitative research.

Research that gathers non-numerical, descriptive data (words, meanings, experiences) to understand the depth, context, and interpretation of social phenomena.

Give three key differences between quantitative and qualitative approaches.

Quantitative: numerical data, deductive, large samples, statistical analysis, generalizable. Qualitative: textual/observational data, inductive, small samples, interpretive analysis, in-depth understanding.

Which approach is generally deductive and which is generally inductive?

Quantitative research is typically deductive (theory to data/hypothesis testing); qualitative research is typically inductive (data to theory building).

What is triangulation in research?

The use of multiple methods, data sources, or theories to study the same phenomenon, increasing the validity and credibility of findings.

What is a questionnaire?

A research instrument consisting of a set of written questions designed to collect data from respondents about their attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or characteristics.

What is the difference between a structured and an unstructured questionnaire?

A structured questionnaire has fixed, predetermined (mostly closed-ended) questions in a set order; an unstructured one uses open-ended, flexible questions allowing free responses.

Distinguish between closed-ended and open-ended questions.

Closed-ended questions offer fixed answer choices (easy to quantify); open-ended questions allow respondents to answer freely in their own words (rich but harder to analyze).

What is the difference between a mailed questionnaire and a collective questionnaire?

A mailed questionnaire is sent to respondents by post to fill in alone; a collective (group) questionnaire is administered to a group gathered together at one place and time.

List the main advantages of the questionnaire method.

Economical, covers wide geographic area, saves time, ensures anonymity, free from interviewer bias, and convenient for respondents to answer at leisure.

List the main limitations of the questionnaire method.

Low response rate, limited to literate respondents, no clarification of doubts, risk of incomplete/insincere answers, and inability to capture non-verbal cues.

What qualities should a good questionnaire have?

Clear and simple language, logical sequence, brevity, unambiguous and non-leading questions, appropriate length, and relevance to research objectives.

What is a leading question and why should it be avoided?

A leading question suggests or hints at a desired answer; it should be avoided because it biases responses and reduces objectivity and validity.

What is the survey method?

A method of collecting data from a sample or population through questionnaires or interviews to describe, compare, or explain attitudes, behaviors, and characteristics.

Name the main types of surveys.

Census surveys and sample surveys; and by purpose, descriptive surveys and analytical/explanatory surveys.

What is the difference between a census and a sample survey?

A census studies every unit of the entire population; a sample survey studies only a selected subset (sample) representing the population.

What is a sample in research?

A subset of units selected from a larger population that is studied to draw conclusions about the whole population.

Distinguish between probability and non-probability sampling.

In probability sampling every unit has a known, non-zero chance of selection (random); in non-probability sampling selection is based on judgment or convenience, without equal chance.

Name common types of probability sampling.

Simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and multistage sampling.

Name common types of non-probability sampling.

Convenience sampling, purposive (judgmental) sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling.

What is stratified sampling?

A probability technique that divides the population into homogeneous subgroups (strata) and draws random samples from each to ensure representation.

What are the advantages of the survey method?

Covers large populations, cost- and time-efficient relative to censuses, allows statistical analysis and generalization, and can study many variables at once.

What is observation as a research technique?

A method of collecting data by systematically watching and recording behavior, events, or phenomena as they naturally occur or in controlled settings.

Distinguish between participant and non-participant observation.

In participant observation the researcher joins and takes part in the group being studied; in non-participant observation the researcher watches from outside without becoming involved.

Distinguish between controlled and uncontrolled observation.

Controlled observation occurs under pre-arranged, structured conditions (often with instruments); uncontrolled observation studies behavior in natural settings without manipulation.

What are the main advantages of the observation method?

Captures natural behavior, provides first-hand and direct data, independent of respondents' willingness to report, and useful where subjects cannot verbalize responses.

What are the main limitations of the observation method?

Time-consuming and costly, observer bias, limited to observable behavior, cannot study past/attitudinal data, and the Hawthorne effect (subjects altering behavior when watched).

What is the case study method?

An in-depth, intensive, qualitative study of a single unit (a person, group, community, institution, or event) to understand it comprehensively in its real-life context.

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the case study method?

Strengths: in-depth, holistic, rich detail, good for hypothesis generation. Weaknesses: low generalizability, time-consuming, subjective, and risk of researcher bias.