CSS Sociology General Sociology: Basic Concepts Syllabus

State Aristotle's two outcomes for one who can live without society.

One who lives outside society is either 'a beast or a god'—i.e., either subhuman or superhuman—because normal human life requires society.

List the main stages in the evolution of human societies (subsistence-based typology).

Hunting and gathering, pastoral, horticultural, agrarian (agricultural), industrial, and post-industrial societies.

What characterizes a hunting and gathering society?

The earliest and smallest type—nomadic bands living by hunting animals and gathering plants, with little surplus, minimal inequality, and kinship-based organization.

What distinguishes pastoral from horticultural societies?

Pastoral societies subsist by domesticating and herding animals (often nomadic), while horticultural societies subsist by cultivating plants in small gardens using hand tools (more settled).

What characterizes an agrarian (agricultural) society?

Large-scale cultivation using the plough and animal power, producing surplus that supports cities, social classes, the state, and marked inequality.

What marks the shift to an industrial society?

The use of machines and advanced energy sources for mass production (Industrial Revolution), urbanization, division of labour, and a money-based market economy.

What characterizes a post-industrial society?

An economy based on information, services, and knowledge rather than manufacturing—dominated by technology, communication, and a highly educated workforce.

Which sociologist linked societal evolution to changing forms of 'solidarity', and what are they?

Émile Durkheim—mechanical solidarity (based on likeness in simple societies) evolving into organic solidarity (based on interdependence and division of labour in complex societies).

Define 'culture' in sociology.

Culture is the complex whole of knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society (E.B. Tylor).

Who gave the classic definition of culture in 'Primitive Culture' (1871)?

Edward B. Tylor defined culture as 'that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.'

List the main characteristics of culture.

Culture is learned, social/shared, transmitted (from generation to generation), continuous and cumulative, dynamic/adaptive, gratifying (meets needs), symbolic, and varies from society to society.

Why is culture said to be 'learned' and not innate?

Because culture is acquired through socialization and experience rather than inherited biologically; humans are not born with culture but learn it from their society.

What are the two broad types of culture, and how do they differ?

Material culture—tangible, man-made objects (tools, buildings, technology); and non-material culture—intangible elements such as beliefs, values, norms, language, and customs.

What is the difference between 'real culture' and 'ideal culture'?

Ideal culture is the values and norms a society professes/aspires to, while real culture is the way people actually behave in practice; the two often diverge.

Define subculture and counterculture.

A subculture is a group within a society that shares the larger culture but also has its own distinct values/practices; a counterculture is a subculture whose values oppose and reject those of the dominant culture.

What is the difference between high culture and popular (mass) culture?

High culture refers to cultural patterns of a society's elite (e.g., fine art, classical music), while popular culture refers to widespread patterns of the masses (e.g., pop music, mass media).

List the main functions of culture.

Culture defines situations and goals, provides solutions to problems, shapes personality, gives identity, ensures social control and solidarity, transmits the social heritage, and meets human needs.

How does culture function as a means of social control?

Through its norms, values, customs, and sanctions, culture regulates and constrains individual behaviour, guiding people to conform to socially approved conduct.

What are the basic elements of culture?

Symbols, language, values, beliefs, norms (folkways, mores, laws), and material objects/artifacts.

What are 'norms', and what are their main types?

Norms are rules and expectations guiding behaviour; the main types are folkways (everyday customs), mores (strongly held moral norms), and laws (formally enacted, enforced norms).

Distinguish between 'folkways' and 'mores' (W.G. Sumner).

Folkways are routine conventions of everyday life whose violation brings mild disapproval; mores are norms with strong moral significance whose violation brings serious punishment.

What is the difference between 'values' and 'norms'?

Values are abstract, culturally shared standards of what is good/desirable, while norms are concrete rules of conduct that put those values into practice in specific situations.

Why is language considered the most important element of culture?

Because language is the primary symbolic system through which culture is created, stored, and transmitted across generations and through which people share meanings.

Define 'ethnocentrism' and 'cultural relativism'.

Ethnocentrism is judging another culture by the standards of one's own (seeing it as superior); cultural relativism is judging a culture by its own standards rather than one's own.

What is 'cultural lag' and who introduced the concept?

Coined by W.F. Ogburn, cultural lag is the delay between change in material culture (technology) and the slower adjustment of non-material culture (values, norms) to it.

Define 'acculturation' and 'assimilation'.

Acculturation is cultural change resulting from continuous contact between cultures (borrowing traits); assimilation is the process by which a group fully blends into and adopts the dominant culture, losing its distinct identity.

What is 'cultural diffusion'?

Cultural diffusion is the spread of cultural traits, ideas, or objects from one society or group to another through contact.

Define 'socialization' in sociology.

Socialization is the lifelong process through which individuals learn and internalize the norms, values, beliefs, and behaviours of their culture, becoming functioning members of society.

List the main agencies of socialization.

The family (primary agency), peer group, school/education, religion, the workplace, and the mass media.

What is the difference between a caste system and a class system?

A caste system is closed—status is ascribed by birth and fixed for life with no mobility; a class system is open—status is largely achieved and social mobility between classes is possible.