CSS Psychology Cognitive Psychology Syllabus

Distinguish binocular from monocular depth cues.

Binocular cues require both eyes (e.g., retinal disparity, convergence); monocular cues require only one eye (e.g., linear perspective, interposition, relative size).

What is retinal (binocular) disparity?

A binocular depth cue: the slight difference between the images projected on the two retinas; the greater the disparity, the closer the object.

What is convergence as a depth cue?

A binocular cue based on the inward turning of the eyes as an object moves closer; greater muscle tension signals nearer distance.

Name five monocular (pictorial) depth cues.

Linear perspective, interposition (overlap), relative size, texture gradient, aerial (atmospheric) perspective; also light and shadow, relative height, and motion parallax.

What is interposition (overlap) as a depth cue?

A monocular cue where an object that partially blocks another is perceived as closer than the object it covers.

What is linear perspective?

A monocular depth cue in which parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance.

What is motion parallax?

A monocular depth cue: as we move, nearer objects appear to move faster across the visual field than distant objects.

What is a perceptual illusion?

A misinterpretation of sensory information producing a perception that does not match physical reality.

Describe the Muller-Lyer illusion.

Two lines of equal length appear unequal because of arrow-like fins; the line with outward-pointing fins looks longer than the one with inward-pointing fins.

Describe the Ponzo illusion.

Two identical horizontal lines placed across converging lines (like railway tracks) appear unequal; the upper line seems longer due to perceived distance cues.

What is the moon illusion?

The moon appears larger near the horizon than at its zenith, even though its retinal size is the same, due to distance and surrounding visual cues.

What is Extra Sensory Perception (ESP)?

The claimed perception of information without the use of recognized physical senses, studied under parapsychology.

Name the main forms of ESP and the broader category they fall under.

Telepathy (mind-to-mind communication), clairvoyance (perceiving distant/hidden objects), and precognition (perceiving future events); psychokinesis (mind influencing matter) is related. They fall under parapsychology.

List key determinants of perception.

Perceptual set/expectation, motivation and needs, emotions, past experience and learning, attention, culture, and context.

What is perceptual set?

A mental predisposition or readiness to perceive stimuli in a particular way based on expectations, context, and prior experience.

Define learning in psychology.

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience or practice, excluding changes due to maturation, fatigue, or drugs.

What is habituation as a form of learning?

A decrease in response to a repeated, harmless stimulus; the simplest form of learning.

Who proposed classical conditioning, and through what experiment?

Ivan Pavlov, through experiments with dogs salivating to a bell (sound) that was paired with food.

In classical conditioning, define UCS, UCR, CS, and CR.

UCS (unconditioned stimulus) naturally triggers a response; UCR (unconditioned response) is the natural reaction to the UCS; CS (conditioned stimulus) is a neutral stimulus that, after pairing, triggers a response; CR (conditioned response) is the learned reaction to the CS.

What is acquisition in classical conditioning?

The initial stage of learning when the neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the UCS so that it becomes a CS able to produce the CR.

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

The weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.

What is spontaneous recovery?

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period, without further conditioning.

Distinguish stimulus generalization from stimulus discrimination.

Generalization is responding to stimuli similar to the CS; discrimination is learning to respond only to the specific CS and not to similar stimuli.

Who developed operant conditioning, and what is its central principle?

B. F. Skinner; behavior is shaped by its consequences—behaviors followed by reinforcement are strengthened, and those followed by punishment are weakened (Law of Effect, originally Thorndike).

Distinguish positive from negative reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior; negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior. Both strengthen behavior.

Distinguish positive from negative punishment.

Positive punishment adds an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior; negative punishment removes a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior. Both weaken behavior.

Name the four schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning.

Fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval schedules. (Variable-ratio produces the highest, most resistant response rate.)

What is shaping in operant conditioning?

Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior until the target behavior is achieved.

What is observational learning, and who is its main theorist?

Learning by watching and imitating the behavior of others (models); the main theorist is Albert Bandura.

What did Bandura's Bobo doll experiment demonstrate?

That children learn aggression and other behaviors by observing and imitating models, showing learning can occur without direct reinforcement.

List the four key processes in Bandura's observational learning.

Attention, retention (memory), reproduction (motor reproduction), and motivation (reinforcement).

What is the difference between sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model?

Sensory memory holds raw sensory input briefly (under a second to a few seconds); short-term memory holds about 7 items for ~15-30 seconds; long-term memory stores information relatively permanently with vast capacity.

What is the capacity and duration of short-term memory according to Miller?

About 7 plus or minus 2 items (the 'magic number seven') for roughly 15-30 seconds without rehearsal.

Name and describe the two types of sensory memory.

Iconic memory (visual sensory memory, lasting about 0.5 second) and echoic memory (auditory sensory memory, lasting about 3-4 seconds).

Distinguish explicit (declarative) from implicit (non-declarative) long-term memory.

Explicit memory is conscious memory of facts and events (declarative); implicit memory is unconscious memory for skills and conditioned responses (procedural).

Distinguish episodic from semantic memory.

Episodic memory stores personal experiences and events tied to time and place; semantic memory stores general knowledge, facts, and concepts independent of personal context.

What is chunking, and how does it aid memory?

Chunking is organizing individual items into larger, meaningful units, which increases the effective capacity of short-term memory.

What is the law of effect (Thorndike), foundational to learning theory?

Responses followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while responses followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.

What is insight learning, and who demonstrated it?

Insight learning is the sudden realization of a problem's solution ('aha' experience) without trial and error; demonstrated by Wolfgang Kohler in his experiments with chimpanzees.