CSS Geography Environmental Change Syllabus

What is soil erosion and what causes it?

The removal of topsoil by wind or water, accelerated by deforestation, overgrazing, poor farming practices and removal of vegetation cover.

Define environmental conservation.

The protection, preservation, management and sustainable use of natural resources and ecosystems to prevent their depletion and maintain ecological balance.

Distinguish conservation from preservation.

Conservation is the sustainable use and management of resources for present and future needs; preservation is protecting nature in its untouched state, free from human use.

What is sustainable development?

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Brundtland Commission, 1987).

What is biodiversity and why is it important?

The variety of life forms (genes, species, ecosystems); it provides ecosystem stability, food, medicine, clean air/water, and resilience to environmental change.

Define pollution.

The introduction of harmful substances or contaminants (pollutants) into the natural environment, causing adverse changes to air, water, soil or organisms.

List the main types of pollution.

Air pollution, water pollution, soil/land pollution, noise pollution, thermal pollution, radioactive pollution, and light pollution.

Distinguish point-source from non-point-source pollution.

Point-source pollution comes from a single identifiable source (e.g., a factory pipe); non-point-source pollution comes from diffuse, widespread sources (e.g., agricultural runoff).

What are primary and secondary pollutants?

Primary pollutants are emitted directly (e.g., CO, SO2, NOx); secondary pollutants form in the atmosphere from reactions of primary pollutants (e.g., ozone, smog, acid rain).

Name the main air pollutants.

Carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), ground-level ozone (O3), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

What is acid rain and how does it form?

Precipitation with high acidity (low pH), formed when sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water vapour in the atmosphere to form sulphuric and nitric acids.

What is smog and what are its two types?

Smog is a mix of smoke and fog/pollutants. Types: classical/sulphurous smog (from coal burning, SO2) and photochemical smog (from NOx and VOCs reacting in sunlight, producing ozone).

What causes water pollution?

Industrial effluents, sewage, agricultural runoff (fertilizers/pesticides), oil spills, plastic waste, and thermal discharge entering water bodies.

What is eutrophication?

The excessive enrichment of water with nutrients (nitrogen/phosphorus from fertilizers and sewage), causing algal blooms, oxygen depletion (hypoxia) and death of aquatic life.

What is thermal pollution?

The degradation of water quality by raising or lowering its temperature, usually from industrial/power-plant cooling water discharge, which reduces dissolved oxygen and harms aquatic life.

List four major problems caused by air pollution.

Respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, acid rain, smog reducing visibility, global warming/climate change, and ozone layer depletion.

What health problems result from pollution?

Respiratory illnesses (asthma, bronchitis), cancers, waterborne diseases (cholera, dysentery), heavy-metal poisoning, hearing loss (noise), and birth defects.

What is ozone layer depletion and what causes it?

The thinning of the stratospheric ozone layer, mainly caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons releasing chlorine that destroys ozone, increasing harmful UV radiation reaching Earth.

What is the Montreal Protocol (1987)?

An international treaty to phase out the production of ozone-depleting substances such as CFCs to protect the stratospheric ozone layer.

What are the main global environmental/biome patterns by latitude?

Tropical rainforests near the equator, savannas and deserts in the subtropics, temperate forests and grasslands in mid-latitudes, and tundra/taiga in high latitudes.

What is a biome?

A large-scale ecological community characterized by distinctive climate, vegetation and animal life, such as tropical rainforest, desert, grassland, tundra or taiga.

What is an environmental hazard?

A natural or human-induced event or condition with the potential to cause harm to people, property, or the environment (e.g., earthquakes, floods, industrial accidents).

Distinguish natural from anthropogenic (man-made) hazards.

Natural hazards arise from natural processes (earthquakes, volcanoes, floods, cyclones); anthropogenic hazards result from human activity (chemical spills, nuclear accidents, industrial explosions).

Classify natural hazards into their main types.

Geological (earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides), hydro-meteorological (floods, cyclones, droughts, storms), and biological (epidemics, pests, infestations).

Differentiate between a hazard and a disaster.

A hazard is a potential threat or dangerous event; a disaster is the actual occurrence that causes serious disruption, loss of life and damage exceeding a community's coping capacity.

What is vulnerability in disaster/risk management?

The conditions (physical, social, economic, environmental) that increase the susceptibility of a community or system to the impact of hazards.

State the risk equation used in risk management.

Risk = Hazard x Vulnerability / Capacity (also expressed as Risk = Probability of hazard x Consequences/Vulnerability).

What are the four phases of the disaster/risk management cycle?

Mitigation (reduce risk), Preparedness (plan and train), Response (act during the event), and Recovery (restore and rebuild).

Distinguish mitigation from preparedness in risk management.

Mitigation aims to prevent or reduce the impact of hazards before they occur (e.g., dams, building codes); preparedness involves planning, early-warning systems and training to respond effectively when a hazard strikes.

What is the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction?

A UN framework (2015-2030) that sets global priorities for reducing disaster risk: understanding risk, strengthening governance, investing in resilience, and enhancing preparedness for 'build back better' recovery.