UGC NET Research Aptitude Syllabus

What is the defining feature that makes the experimental method strong for establishing causality?

Manipulation of the independent variable together with control of extraneous variables (often via randomization), allowing valid cause-effect inferences.

What is the difference between internal validity and external validity in experiments?

Internal validity is the degree to which observed effects are truly caused by the manipulated variable (not confounds); external validity is the degree to which results can be generalized to other people, settings and times.

What is the descriptive method of research?

A method that systematically describes the characteristics, conditions or relationships of a population or phenomenon as they currently exist, without manipulating variables.

What is the survey method?

A descriptive method of collecting data from a sample of respondents using questionnaires or interviews to describe attitudes, opinions, behaviours or characteristics of a population.

What is the historical method of research?

A method that systematically collects, evaluates and interprets evidence about past events to describe causes, effects and trends, helping understand the present and anticipate the future.

What is the difference between primary and secondary sources in historical research?

Primary sources are original, first-hand evidence created at the time (documents, relics, eyewitness accounts); secondary sources are second-hand accounts that interpret or report primary sources (textbooks, reviews).

What are external criticism and internal criticism in historical research?

External criticism evaluates the authenticity/genuineness of a source (is it real?); internal criticism evaluates the accuracy and credibility of its content (is the information true?).

What is the philosophical method of research?

A method of inquiry using reasoning, logic, reflection and critical analysis of concepts, values and assumptions to address fundamental questions about reality, knowledge and ethics.

What are the key features of qualitative research methods?

They are naturalistic (real-world setting), use non-numerical data, are inductive and interpretive, focus on meaning and process, use small purposive samples, and the researcher is the key instrument.

Name common qualitative research methods/designs.

Case study, ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, narrative research, and historical study.

What is the focus of phenomenology as a qualitative method?

Phenomenology studies the lived experiences and the essence/meaning of a phenomenon as perceived by the individuals who have experienced it.

What is grounded theory?

A qualitative approach that generates or 'grounds' a theory directly from systematically collected and analyzed data through constant comparison, rather than testing a pre-existing theory.

What is ethnography?

A qualitative method involving prolonged immersion and observation within a cultural group in its natural setting to describe and interpret its shared patterns of behaviour, beliefs and language.

What is a research problem?

A research problem is a clearly stated question, difficulty or gap in knowledge that the researcher seeks to investigate and resolve through systematic inquiry.

What are common sources for identifying a research problem?

Personal experience, review of literature, existing theories, previous research, consultation with experts, real-life practical problems, and current social/technological issues.

What are the characteristics of a good (well-formulated) research problem?

It is clear, specific, researchable, significant/relevant, feasible (resources, time), ethical, and stated in a way that allows measurement of variables and relationships.

What is a hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a tentative, testable statement or assumption about the relationship between two or more variables, formulated to be confirmed or rejected by empirical evidence.

What are the characteristics of a good hypothesis?

It should be clear and precise, testable/verifiable, state a relationship between variables, be specific, consistent with known facts, and as simple as possible (parsimonious).

What is the difference between the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis?

The null hypothesis (H0) states there is no relationship or no difference between variables; the alternative hypothesis (H1) states that a relationship or difference does exist.

What is a directional versus a non-directional hypothesis?

A directional hypothesis predicts the specific direction of the relationship (e.g., A is greater than B); a non-directional hypothesis predicts a relationship/difference exists but not its direction.

What are Type I and Type II errors in hypothesis testing?

A Type I error is rejecting a true null hypothesis (false positive); a Type II error is accepting a false null hypothesis (false negative).

What is sampling and what is a sample?

Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of units from a population for study; the sample is that selected subset used to make inferences about the whole population.

What is the difference between probability and non-probability sampling?

In probability sampling every unit has a known, non-zero chance of selection (random); in non-probability sampling selection is based on the researcher's judgment/convenience and selection probabilities are unknown.

Name the main types of probability sampling.

Simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, and multi-stage sampling.

What is stratified random sampling?

The population is divided into homogeneous subgroups (strata) based on a characteristic, and samples are drawn randomly from each stratum, often in proportion to stratum size.

What is the difference between cluster sampling and stratified sampling?

In stratified sampling the population is split into homogeneous strata and units are sampled from every stratum; in cluster sampling the population is split into heterogeneous clusters and entire clusters are randomly selected for study.

Name the main types of non-probability sampling.

Convenience (accidental) sampling, purposive (judgmental) sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling.

What is snowball sampling and when is it used?

A non-probability technique where existing subjects recruit further subjects from their acquaintances; used for hard-to-reach or hidden populations (e.g., drug users).

What are the major tools/techniques of data collection?

Observation, interview, questionnaire, schedule, rating scales, checklists, tests, and analysis of documents/records.

What is the difference between a questionnaire and a schedule?

A questionnaire is filled in by the respondent themselves (mailed/self-administered); a schedule is filled in by the enumerator/interviewer who asks the questions and records the answers.

Define independent, dependent, and extraneous variables.

The independent variable is the cause manipulated by the researcher; the dependent variable is the effect/outcome that is measured; an extraneous variable is an uncontrolled outside variable that may affect the dependent variable and confound results.