Photography Camera Fundamentals and Equipment Syllabus

List the standard full-stop aperture scale and state the light relationship between adjacent stops.

$f/1.4,\ f/2,\ f/2.8,\ f/4,\ f/5.6,\ f/8,\ f/11,\ f/16,\ f/22$. Each full stop halves the light (each f-number is the previous multiplied by $\sqrt{2} \approx 1.414$), because light gathered is proportional to $\frac{1}{N^{2}}$.

What is the difference between a constant-aperture and a variable-aperture zoom lens?

A constant-aperture zoom (e.g., 24–70 mm $f/2.8$) keeps the same maximum aperture at every focal length. A variable-aperture zoom (e.g., 18–55 mm $f/3.5\text{–}5.6$) loses maximum aperture as you zoom in, so it becomes slower at the long end.

What defines a true macro lens?

A lens capable of at least 1:1 (life-size) magnification, meaning the subject is projected onto the sensor at its actual size. Macro lenses are optimized for extreme close-up sharpness and very short minimum focusing distances.

What is a fisheye lens and how does it differ from a rectilinear ultra-wide lens?

An ultra-wide lens (often around 8–16 mm) that deliberately keeps curvilinear projection, producing up to a $180^{\circ}$ view with strongly curved straight lines. A rectilinear ultra-wide corrects the projection so straight lines stay straight.

What is a tilt-shift lens used for?

Its optics can tilt (rotating the plane of focus, per the Scheimpflug principle, to control focus across a scene or create a miniature effect) and shift (moving the lens parallel to the sensor to correct converging verticals). It is used mainly in architecture and product photography.

Distinguish barrel distortion from pincushion distortion.

Barrel distortion: straight lines bow outward from the center, typical of wide-angle lenses. Pincushion distortion: straight lines bow inward toward the center, typical of telephoto lenses. Both are geometric distortions correctable in software.

What is chromatic aberration and why does it occur?

Colored fringing (often purple/green) along high-contrast edges, caused by the lens refracting different wavelengths of light by different amounts so they do not focus at the same point. Reduced by low-dispersion glass elements, stopping down, and software correction.

What is vignetting and how can it be reduced?

Darkening of an image's corners relative to the center, caused by lens optics (optical/mechanical vignetting) or stacked filters and hoods. It is strongest at maximum aperture and is reduced by stopping down or corrected with lens profiles in software.

What is spherical aberration?

Softness caused by light rays passing through the edges of a spherical lens element focusing at a different point than rays through the center, giving reduced overall sharpness and 'glow.' Aspherical elements and stopping down reduce it.

In Aperture Priority mode (A or Av), what does the photographer set and what does the camera set?

The photographer chooses the aperture (and usually ISO); the camera automatically selects the shutter speed for correct exposure. It is the go-to mode for controlling depth of field.

In Shutter Priority mode (S or Tv), what does the photographer set, and when is it used?

The photographer sets the shutter speed and the camera chooses the aperture. It is used when motion control matters: fast speeds (e.g., $\frac{1}{1000}$ s) to freeze action, slow speeds to show motion blur or panning.

What is Manual mode (M) and when is it preferred?

The photographer sets aperture, shutter speed, and (optionally) ISO entirely by hand, using the meter only as a guide. Preferred for studio flash, consistent exposures across frames (panoramas, timelapses), and tricky lighting that fools automatic metering.

How does Program mode (P) differ from full Auto?

In Program mode the camera sets both aperture and shutter speed, but the photographer retains control over ISO, exposure compensation, white balance, flash, and can shift the aperture/shutter combination (program shift). Full Auto locks out most of these overrides.

How does evaluative (matrix) metering work?

The camera divides the frame into many zones, analyzes brightness, contrast, color, and often the focus point across all zones, and computes an exposure using scene-recognition algorithms. It is the default, most reliable general-purpose metering mode.

How does center-weighted average metering determine exposure?

It averages brightness across the whole frame but assigns the greatest weight to a large central area, assuming the subject is near the middle. It is predictable and traditional for portraits.

What is spot metering and when should you use it?

The camera meters only a very small area (roughly $1\text{–}5\%$ of the frame, at the center or active focus point) and ignores the rest. Use it for high-contrast scenes like backlit subjects, the moon, or stage performers under spotlights.

What is the difference between single-shot and continuous (burst) drive modes?

Single-shot takes one photo per shutter press. Continuous/burst mode keeps taking photos as long as the shutter is held, at a stated frames-per-second rate, for action and sports. Additional drive modes include self-timer and remote.

What is the camera buffer, and what happens when it fills during burst shooting?

The buffer is fast internal memory that temporarily holds burst images before they are written to the memory card. When it fills, the burst rate slows or stops until the card catches up — so buffer depth and card write speed limit sustained bursts.

What is white balance and in what unit is light's color temperature measured?

White balance is the camera adjustment that compensates for the color cast of a light source so whites appear neutral. Color temperature is measured in kelvin ($K$): lower values are warmer/orange light, higher values are cooler/blue light.

Give approximate color temperatures for candlelight, tungsten bulbs, midday daylight, and open shade.

Candlelight: about $1900\ K$; tungsten/incandescent: about $3200\ K$; midday daylight/flash: about $5500\ K$; open shade/heavy overcast: about $7000\text{–}8000\ K$.

How do you set a custom white balance, and why does shooting RAW reduce the need for it?

Photograph a neutral gray or white card under the scene's light and tell the camera to use that frame as its neutral reference. RAW files store unprocessed sensor data, so white balance can be changed losslessly after the fact, unlike JPEG where it is baked in.

State the reciprocal rule for handheld shutter speed.

To avoid blur from camera shake, use a shutter speed at least as fast as the reciprocal of the (full-frame equivalent) focal length: $$t \leq \frac{1}{f_{\text{equivalent}}}\ \text{s}$$ e.g., for a 200 mm lens, shoot at $\frac{1}{200}$ s or faster (image stabilization allows slower speeds).

What is the difference between in-body image stabilization (IBIS) and lens-based stabilization?

IBIS physically shifts the sensor to counteract camera shake and works with any mounted lens; lens-based stabilization (IS/VR/OSS) shifts a lens element and is often more effective at long telephoto focal lengths. Many systems combine both. Stabilization counters camera shake only — not subject motion.

Compare a ball head and a pan-tilt (three-way) head on a tripod.

A ball head uses one locking ball for fast, fluid repositioning in all directions — quick but less precise. A pan-tilt head has separate locks for each axis (pan, tilt, roll), allowing slow, precise, independent adjustments favored for landscapes, architecture, and video panning.

What are the purposes of a UV filter in digital photography?

On digital cameras it has virtually no optical effect (sensors are barely UV-sensitive); it is used mainly as inexpensive physical protection for the front lens element against scratches, dust, and moisture.

What does a circular polarizing filter (CPL) do, and what is its typical light cost?

It blocks polarized light: rotating it cuts reflections and glare from water and glass, deepens blue skies, and boosts color saturation. Its effect is strongest at $90^{\circ}$ to the sun, cannot be replicated in software, and costs about $1\text{–}2$ stops of light.

How many stops of light does an ND8 filter block, and what is the general formula relating ND factor to stops?

An ND filter with factor $2^{n}$ blocks $n$ stops, so ND8 $= 2^{3}$ blocks 3 stops (ND2 = 1 stop, ND4 = 2 stops, ND1000 $\approx 2^{10}$ = 10 stops). ND filters enable slow shutter speeds or wide apertures in bright light, e.g., silky waterfalls.

On SD cards, what do the UHS speed class and video speed class markings (e.g., U3, V30) guarantee?

They guarantee minimum sustained write speeds: U1 and V10 = $10$ MB/s, U3 and V30 = $30$ MB/s, V60 = $60$ MB/s, V90 = $90$ MB/s. Higher sustained write speeds are required for 4K/8K video and deep burst shooting.

Why should memory cards be formatted in the camera rather than just deleting files on a computer?

In-camera formatting rebuilds the card's file system and folder structure to match the camera's expectations, clearing fragmentation and reducing the risk of corruption and write errors; deleting files leaves old file-table entries behind. Always back up images first — formatting erases everything.

Describe the correct procedure and tools for cleaning a lens, and how camera gear should be stored to prevent fungus.

Clean in order of increasing contact: first blow dust off with an air blower, then sweep with a soft lens brush, and only then wipe gently in circular motions with a microfiber cloth and lens-cleaning solution — never wipe a dry, gritty lens. Store gear in a dry, ventilated place with silica gel packets (ideally $\sim 40\text{–}50\%$ relative humidity), since dark, humid conditions promote lens fungus.