MHT CET Chemistry Syllabus

Define solubility product (Ksp) for AB2 type salt and the condition for precipitation.

For AB2 → A²⁺ + 2B⁻, Ksp = [A²⁺][B⁻]². Precipitation occurs when ionic product (Qsp) > Ksp.

Write the integrated rate law and half-life expression for a first-order reaction.

k = (2.303/t)·log([A]₀/[A]); t₁/₂ = 0.693/k (independent of initial concentration).

How does the half-life of a zero-order reaction depend on initial concentration, and what is its expression?

t₁/₂ = [A]₀/2k; it is directly proportional to the initial concentration.

State the Arrhenius equation and define activation energy.

k = A·e^(−Ea/RT), where A = frequency factor, Ea = activation energy (minimum energy reactant molecules must have to react). Log form: log k = log A − Ea/(2.303RT).

Define order and molecularity of a reaction and give one difference.

Order = sum of powers of concentration terms in the experimental rate law (can be zero/fractional). Molecularity = number of species in an elementary step (always a whole number ≥1). Order is experimental; molecularity is theoretical.

State Faraday's first law of electrolysis with its equation.

The mass of substance deposited is proportional to the quantity of electricity passed: m = Z·I·t, where Z = electrochemical equivalent. (1 Faraday = 96500 C deposits 1 gram equivalent).

Write the Nernst equation for an electrode at 298 K.

E = E° − (0.0591/n)·log([reduced]/[oxidised]) at 298 K, where n = number of electrons transferred.

How is the standard cell EMF related to ΔG° and to the equilibrium constant?

ΔG° = −nFE°cell; and E°cell = (0.0591/n)·log Kc at 298 K.

Define molar conductivity and state how it varies with dilution for strong and weak electrolytes.

Molar conductivity (Λm) = κ x 1000 / C. It increases with dilution for both; for strong electrolytes it rises slightly (and follows Λm = Λ°m − b√C), for weak electrolytes it rises sharply due to increased dissociation.

Why do group 16 elements show a maximum oxidation state of +6 except oxygen?

Oxygen lacks d-orbitals and is highly electronegative, so it cannot expand its octet; other members (S, Se, Te) have vacant d-orbitals allowing +6 (e.g., SF6).

Why is HF a weaker acid than HCl, HBr, and HI?

Due to the very strong H–F bond (high bond dissociation enthalpy) and strong hydrogen bonding, HF dissociates less; acid strength order is HF < HCl < HBr < HI.

Why are the noble gases (group 18) chemically inert?

They have completely filled valence shells (ns²np⁶, He = 1s²), very high ionization enthalpies and almost zero electron gain enthalpy, making them stable and unreactive.

Name the first noble gas compound prepared and give an example of a known xenon fluoride.

Xe⁺[PtF6]⁻ (xenon hexafluoroplatinate) by Bartlett. Known fluorides include XeF2, XeF4, and XeF6.

Why do transition elements show variable oxidation states?

Because the energies of (n−1)d and ns orbitals are very close, electrons from both can participate in bonding, giving multiple oxidation states (e.g., Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺, Mn from +2 to +7).

Why are most transition metal compounds coloured?

Due to d–d electronic transitions: absorption of visible light promotes electrons between split d-orbitals; the complementary colour is observed. Ions with d⁰ or d¹⁰ (e.g., Sc³⁺, Zn²⁺) are colourless.

What is the lanthanide contraction and one of its consequences?

The steady decrease in atomic/ionic size across the lanthanide series due to poor shielding by 4f electrons. Consequence: Zr and Hf (and Nb/Ta) have nearly identical sizes, making their separation difficult.

Define a ligand and distinguish monodentate from bidentate ligands with examples.

A ligand is an ion/molecule that donates a lone pair to the central metal. Monodentate donates through one atom (e.g., NH3, Cl⁻); bidentate through two (e.g., ethylenediamine 'en', oxalate).

State Werner's definition of primary and secondary valency in coordination compounds.

Primary valency = oxidation number (ionisable, satisfied by negative ions); secondary valency = coordination number (non-ionisable, satisfied by ligands, fixed and directional).

What is the coordination number and write the IUPAC name of K4[Fe(CN)6].

Coordination number = 6. IUPAC name: potassium hexacyanoferrate(II).

According to crystal field theory, what is the splitting pattern of d-orbitals in an octahedral field?

The five d-orbitals split into lower-energy t2g (dxy, dyz, dzx) and higher-energy eg (dx²−y², dz²); the energy gap is Δo (crystal field splitting energy).

What is the difference between froth flotation and magnetic separation in ore concentration?

Froth flotation concentrates sulphide ores using the differential wettability of ore and gangue with oil/water. Magnetic separation separates magnetic ore particles from non-magnetic gangue (or vice versa) using a magnet.

Define roasting and calcination in metallurgy.

Roasting: heating a sulphide ore strongly in excess air to convert it to oxide. Calcination: heating a carbonate/hydroxide ore in limited or no air to convert it to oxide (removing volatile matter/water).

What is the role of an Ellingham diagram in metallurgy?

It plots ΔG° vs temperature for formation of metal oxides; it helps choose a suitable reducing agent and the temperature at which reduction of a metal oxide becomes feasible (ΔG° negative).

State Markovnikov's rule for addition of HX to an unsymmetrical alkene.

In the addition of a protic acid HX to an unsymmetrical alkene, the negative part (X) attaches to the carbon bearing fewer hydrogen atoms; H adds to the carbon with more hydrogens (via the more stable carbocation).

What is the peroxide (Kharasch) effect?

In the presence of organic peroxides, addition of HBr to an unsymmetrical alkene occurs anti-Markovnikov (Br adds to the carbon with more H atoms) via a free-radical mechanism. Applies only to HBr.

Compare the reactivity of SN1 and SN2 reactions with respect to substrate structure.

SN1 is favoured by 3° (tertiary) halides (stable carbocation, two-step, racemisation); SN2 is favoured by 1° (primary) halides (one-step, backside attack, inversion of configuration).

What is the Wurtz reaction and the Fittig reaction?

Wurtz reaction: 2 R–X + 2Na → R–R + 2NaX (forms higher alkanes). Fittig reaction is the analogous coupling of aryl halides with sodium to give biaryls (Wurtz–Fittig couples aryl + alkyl halides).

Distinguish primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols and the reagent (Lucas test) used.

Based on the carbon bearing –OH: 1° has one C, 2° has two, 3° has three carbon attachments. Lucas reagent (conc. HCl + anhydrous ZnCl2): 3° reacts immediately (turbidity), 2° in ~5 min, 1° no reaction at room temperature.

Why is phenol acidic and how does its acidity compare with alcohols and carboxylic acids?

Phenol is acidic because the phenoxide ion is resonance-stabilised. Acidity order: carboxylic acid > phenol > water > alcohol.

What is Williamson's ether synthesis?

Preparation of ethers by reacting an alkyl halide with sodium alkoxide (SN2): R–ONa + R'–X → R–O–R' + NaX. Best with primary alkyl halides to avoid elimination.

Distinguish aldehydes and ketones using Tollens' and Fehling's tests.

Aldehydes reduce Tollens' reagent (give silver mirror) and Fehling's solution (red ppt of Cu2O); ketones do not (except α-hydroxy ketones). This distinguishes aldehydes from ketones.

What is the aldol condensation reaction?

Two molecules of an aldehyde/ketone containing α-hydrogen, in the presence of dilute base, combine to give a β-hydroxy aldehyde/ketone (aldol), which on heating loses water to give an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound.

Compare the basic strength of ammonia, primary, secondary, and tertiary aliphatic amines in the gas phase / general trend in aqueous solution.

In aqueous solution (due to +I effect, steric and solvation factors) the order is generally 2° > 1° > 3° > NH3 (for methyl amines: (CH3)2NH > CH3NH2 > (CH3)3N > NH3).

What is the carbylamine reaction and what is it used to test?

Primary amines (and only primary, aliphatic or aromatic) react with chloroform and alcoholic KOH to form foul-smelling isocyanides (carbylamines): R–NH2 + CHCl3 + 3KOH → R–NC + 3KCl + 3H2O. A test for 1° amines.

What are the products of the diazotisation reaction and the conditions required?

Aromatic primary amines react with nitrous acid (NaNO2 + HCl) at 0–5°C to form diazonium salts (Ar–N2⁺Cl⁻). Low temperature is needed because diazonium salts are unstable at higher temperatures.

Classify monosaccharides, disaccharides, and give one example of each.

Monosaccharide: simplest sugar, e.g., glucose, fructose. Disaccharide: two monosaccharide units, e.g., sucrose, maltose, lactose. Polysaccharide: many units, e.g., starch, cellulose.

What is a peptide bond and a zwitterion in the context of amino acids?

A peptide bond is the –CO–NH– (amide) linkage between the carboxyl of one amino acid and the amino group of another. A zwitterion is the dipolar form of an amino acid having both –NH3⁺ and –COO⁻ (net charge zero).

Distinguish DNA and RNA in terms of sugar and one base difference.

DNA contains deoxyribose sugar and the base thymine (T); RNA contains ribose sugar and uracil (U) instead of thymine. DNA is usually double-stranded, RNA single-stranded.

Differentiate addition and condensation polymers with one example each.

Addition polymers form by repeated addition of monomers with no loss of small molecules (e.g., polythene, PVC). Condensation polymers form with elimination of small molecules like water (e.g., nylon-6,6, terylene/dacron).

State the twelve principles theme of green chemistry and give one example.

Green chemistry aims to design processes/products that reduce or eliminate use and generation of hazardous substances (atom economy, safer solvents, less waste, renewable feedstocks). Example: using H2O2 instead of chlorine for bleaching, or dry-cleaning with liquid CO2 instead of tetrachloroethene.