Italian Intermediate Italian Grammar Syllabus

How are the comparative and superlative of the adverbs 'bene' and 'male' formed in Italian?

bene -> meglio (better) -> benissimo/ottimamente (very well); male -> peggio (worse) -> malissimo/pessimamente (very badly). Note: 'migliore/peggiore' are adjectives, 'meglio/peggio' are adverbs.

What is the general default position of an adverb relative to the verb in a simple Italian tense?

Adverbs usually follow the verb directly: 'Parla lentamente' (He speaks slowly), 'Mangio spesso qui'. Adverbs of manner in particular normally follow the verb.

Where are adverbs like 'già', 'ancora', 'sempre', 'mai', and 'più' placed with compound tenses (passato prossimo)?

They are typically placed between the auxiliary and the past participle: 'Ho già mangiato', 'Non ho mai visto', 'Non ho ancora finito', 'Ho sempre pensato'.

How are most Italian adverbs of manner formed from adjectives?

Add '-mente' to the feminine singular form of the adjective: 'lento -> lenta -> lentamente'; 'vero -> vera -> veramente'. For adjectives ending in -e, add -mente directly: 'veloce -> velocemente'.

What happens to adjectives ending in '-le' or '-re' when forming an adverb with '-mente'?

They drop the final 'e' before adding '-mente': 'facile -> facilmente', 'gentile -> gentilmente', 'regolare -> regolarmente'.

In Italian, where is the adverb of quantity 'molto/poco/troppo' placed relative to the adjective it modifies?

It precedes the adjective/adverb and is invariable in that use: 'molto bello', 'poco interessante', 'troppo tardi'. (As an adjective modifying a noun it agrees: 'molti libri'.)

Where are adverbs of time like 'oggi', 'ieri', 'domani', and 'poi' typically positioned in a sentence?

They are flexible, often at the beginning or end of the clause for emphasis: 'Oggi studio' / 'Studio oggi'. They are generally not inserted between auxiliary and participle.

What is the difference between 'anche' and 'ancora' as adverbs?

'Anche' means 'also/too' ('Vengo anch'io'); 'ancora' means 'still/yet/again' ('Sono ancora qui', 'Non è ancora arrivato'). They are false friends for learners.

In Italian, what is a coordinating conjunction and give the main copulative, disjunctive, and adversative examples.

A conjunction linking equal-rank elements. Copulative: e, anche, né...né; disjunctive: o, oppure, altrimenti; adversative: ma, però, tuttavia, anzi, bensì.

When does the conjunction 'e' become 'ed' and 'o' become 'od' in Italian?

'e' becomes 'ed' and 'o' becomes 'od' (euphonic) before a word beginning with a vowel, especially the same vowel: 'padre ed figlio' -> 'ed ecco', 'ed io', 'sette od otto'. Common usage: 'ed' before 'e', 'od' before 'o'.

What does the correlative conjunction 'né... né' mean and how does it affect the verb?

'né... né' means 'neither... nor'. With 'non' before the verb it forms a double negative: 'Non mangio né carne né pesce'. If 'né...né' precedes the verb, 'non' is omitted: 'Né Marco né Luca sono venuti'.

What is the difference between 'ma', 'però', and 'anzi' as adversative connectors?

'ma' and 'però' both mean 'but' (però can also follow later in the clause); 'anzi' means 'on the contrary / rather / indeed', reinforcing or reversing: 'Non è stanco, anzi è pieno di energia'.

Which conjunctions express cause ('because/since') in Italian and which mood do they take?

'perché', 'poiché', 'siccome', 'dato che', 'visto che' express cause and take the indicative: 'Non esco perché piove'. ('perché' = 'because' takes indicative; 'perché' = 'so that' takes subjunctive.)

Which common conjunctions/conjunctional phrases require the subjunctive in Italian?

benché, sebbene, affinché, perché (so that), prima che, purché, a meno che (non), nonostante, sebbene, senza che, come se, qualora. E.g. 'Benché sia stanco, esco'.

What is a subordinate (dependent) clause in Italian, and can it stand alone?

A subordinate clause depends on a main (independent) clause to complete its meaning and cannot stand alone. It is introduced by a conjunction, relative pronoun, or an implicit verb form (infinitive/gerund/participle).

What is the difference between an 'esplicita' and an 'implicita' subordinate clause in Italian?

An explicit (esplicita) subordinate uses a conjunction + a conjugated verb (indicative/subjunctive/conditional): 'Penso che sia vero'. An implicit (implicita) subordinate uses a non-finite verb (infinito, gerundio, participio): 'Penso di aver ragione'.

When is the subjunctive required in an object subordinate clause introduced by 'che'?

When the main verb expresses opinion, doubt, desire, emotion, or uncertainty (credere, pensare, volere, temere, sperare, dubitare): 'Credo che lui parta domani'. Verbs of certainty/fact (sapere, essere sicuro) take the indicative.

How do you form the three types of Italian hypothetical (if) clauses (periodo ipotetico)?

1) Reality: 'Se + indicative, indicative/future' ('Se piove, resto a casa'). 2) Possibility: 'Se + imperfect subjunctive, present conditional' ('Se piovesse, resterei'). 3) Impossibility/past: 'Se + pluperfect subjunctive, past conditional' ('Se avesse piovuto, sarei rimasto').

In an implicit final clause, how is 'in order to' expressed when the subject is the same as the main clause?

Use 'per + infinitive': 'Studio per imparare' (I study in order to learn). When the subjects differ, use the explicit 'affinché/perché + subjunctive': 'Te lo dico affinché tu capisca'.

What is the rule of 'concordanza dei tempi' (sequence of tenses) with the subjunctive when the main verb is in the present?

Present main verb -> present subjunctive for contemporaneity/future ('Credo che venga'), past subjunctive for anteriority ('Credo che sia venuto'). Main verb in past -> imperfect subjunctive (contemporaneity) or pluperfect subjunctive (anteriority).

In a temporal subordinate clause, what does 'prima che' require versus 'dopo che'?

'prima che' (before) requires the subjunctive: 'Esco prima che arrivino'; but with the same subject use 'prima di + infinitive'. 'dopo che' (after) takes the indicative: 'Dopo che è arrivato, siamo usciti'.

List the invariable (simple) Italian relative pronouns and their basic uses.

'che' = who/whom/that (subject or direct object, invariable); 'cui' = whom/which after a preposition ('la ragazza di cui parlo'); 'chi' = the one who / whoever (refers to unspecified people, singular verb).

When must you use 'cui' instead of 'che' as a relative pronoun?

Use 'cui' after a preposition (a, di, da, in, con, per, su): 'il libro di cui parlo', 'la città in cui vivo'. 'che' is only used as subject or direct object with no preposition.

How does the relative pronoun 'il quale / la quale / i quali / le quali' work?

It is a variable relative agreeing in gender and number with its antecedent. It can replace 'che' (subject) or 'cui' (with preposition, combining with articulated prepositions: 'del quale', 'nel quale') and adds clarity/formality: 'Il direttore, il quale è appena arrivato...'.

How is possessive 'whose' expressed with relative pronouns in Italian?

Use 'il cui / la cui / i cui / le cui', where the article agrees with the thing possessed, not the possessor: 'Lo scrittore le cui opere amo' (the writer whose works I love) — 'le' agrees with 'opere'.

What does the relative 'chi' mean and what verb agreement does it take?

'chi' means 'the one who / whoever / those who' and refers only to people; it is always singular and takes a singular verb: 'Chi cerca trova' (Whoever seeks finds). It combines a demonstrative + relative ('colui che').

What is the double relative pronoun 'quello che / ciò che / quel che' used for?

They mean 'what / that which' and refer to things or whole ideas (no specific antecedent): 'Non capisco quello che dici' / 'Ciò che conta è la salute' (What matters is health).

When 'che' functions as a relative pronoun that is a direct object in a compound tense, does the past participle agree?

Agreement with the past participle is optional/possible but not required with 'che' as antecedent; unlike the object pronouns lo/la/li/le, 'che' does not force participle agreement, though agreement is sometimes seen in careful/literary style.

What is the relative adverb 'dove' and what can it replace?

'dove' (where) is a relative adverb of place that can replace 'in cui / nel quale' when referring to a location: 'la casa dove abito' = 'la casa in cui abito' (the house where I live).

How do you distinguish 'perché' meaning 'because' from 'perché' meaning 'so that' by the mood of the following verb?

'perché' + indicative = 'because' (cause): 'Studio perché voglio imparare'. 'perché' + subjunctive = 'so that' (purpose): 'Te lo spiego perché tu capisca'. The verb mood disambiguates the meaning.

What is the difference between 'mentre' and 'appena' as temporal connectors introducing subordinate clauses?

'mentre' = 'while/whereas' introduces a simultaneous action, usually with the imperfect ('Mentre studiavo, lui dormiva'); 'appena' = 'as soon as' introduces an immediately following action ('Appena arrivo, ti chiamo').