High School Diploma Science Syllabus

What are isotopes?

Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, giving them different mass numbers.

What is the difference between an ionic bond and a covalent bond?

An ionic bond forms by the transfer of electrons between a metal and a nonmetal, creating charged ions. A covalent bond forms by the sharing of electrons, typically between two nonmetals.

What is the octet rule?

Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons in order to achieve a full outer shell of eight valence electrons (like a noble gas).

What does the Law of Conservation of Mass state about chemical reactions?

Matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction; the total mass of the reactants equals the total mass of the products.

Identify the type of reaction: AB + CD → AD + CB.

A double-replacement (double-displacement) reaction, in which the ions of two compounds exchange partners.

In stoichiometry, what is a mole and what is Avogadro's number?

A mole is the amount of a substance containing as many particles as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon-12. Avogadro's number is 6.022 x 10^23 particles per mole.

How do you calculate the number of moles from mass and molar mass?

moles = mass (g) ÷ molar mass (g/mol).

Name the four common states of matter and describe particle arrangement in solids vs. gases.

Solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. In a solid, particles are tightly packed in a fixed arrangement; in a gas, particles are far apart and move freely.

State Boyle's Law and its formula.

At constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume: P1V1 = P2V2.

State Charles's Law and its formula.

At constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute (Kelvin) temperature: V1/T1 = V2/T2.

What is the Ideal Gas Law equation, and what does each variable represent?

PV = nRT, where P = pressure, V = volume, n = number of moles, R = the ideal gas constant, and T = absolute temperature (Kelvin).

On the pH scale, what values are acidic, neutral, and basic?

pH below 7 is acidic, pH 7 is neutral, and pH above 7 is basic (alkaline). The scale runs from 0 to 14.

What ions do acids and bases produce in water (Arrhenius definition)?

Acids release hydrogen ions (H+), and bases release hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.

In a solution, what is the difference between the solute and the solvent?

The solute is the substance being dissolved (present in lesser amount); the solvent is the substance doing the dissolving (present in greater amount), such as water in saltwater.

What is the equation for average velocity?

velocity = displacement ÷ time (v = Δx/Δt).

What is the difference between speed and velocity?

Speed is a scalar quantity (magnitude only). Velocity is a vector quantity that includes both speed and direction.

What is the acceleration due to gravity near Earth's surface?

Approximately 9.8 m/s^2 directed downward (often rounded to 10 m/s^2).

State Newton's three laws of motion.

1) An object stays at rest or in uniform motion unless acted on by a net force (inertia). 2) F = ma. 3) For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

What is the formula for force according to Newton's second law?

F = ma (force equals mass times acceleration).

What is the formula for work, and in what units is it measured?

Work = force × distance (W = Fd), measured in joules (J).

What is the difference between kinetic and potential energy, and give the formula for kinetic energy.

Kinetic energy is energy of motion (KE = ½mv^2); potential energy is stored energy due to position or condition (e.g., gravitational PE = mgh).

Define momentum and give its formula.

Momentum is the quantity of motion of an object: p = mv (mass times velocity). It is a vector quantity measured in kg·m/s.

What is the difference between the wavelength and the frequency of a wave?

Wavelength is the distance between two successive crests (or troughs). Frequency is the number of waves passing a point per second, measured in hertz (Hz).

How do transverse and longitudinal waves differ, and give an example of each?

In a transverse wave, particles move perpendicular to the wave direction (e.g., light, water waves). In a longitudinal wave, particles move parallel to the wave direction (e.g., sound).

What is the wave speed equation?

speed = frequency × wavelength (v = fλ).

What is Ohm's Law, and what does each variable mean?

V = IR, where V = voltage (volts), I = current (amperes), and R = resistance (ohms).

What is the difference between a series circuit and a parallel circuit?

In a series circuit, components are connected in a single path so current is the same throughout; if one breaks, all stop. In a parallel circuit, components are on separate branches, each receiving the full voltage; one can fail without stopping the others.

What are Earth's main layers from outermost to innermost?

Crust, mantle, outer core (liquid), and inner core (solid).

What is the theory of plate tectonics, and name the three types of plate boundaries.

Earth's lithosphere is broken into plates that move over the asthenosphere. The boundary types are convergent (plates collide), divergent (plates move apart), and transform (plates slide past each other).

Describe the three main types of rock in the rock cycle.

Igneous (formed from cooled magma/lava), sedimentary (formed from compacted/cemented sediments), and metamorphic (formed from existing rock changed by heat and pressure).

What is the difference between weather and climate?

Weather is the short-term, day-to-day state of the atmosphere in a place. Climate is the long-term average of weather patterns over many years.

What drives ocean surface currents, and what is the Coriolis effect?

Surface currents are driven primarily by wind. The Coriolis effect is the deflection of moving air and water due to Earth's rotation—right in the Northern Hemisphere, left in the Southern.

List the planets of the solar system in order from the Sun.

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

What is the difference between rotation and revolution, and what does each cause on Earth?

Rotation is Earth spinning on its axis (causes day and night, about 24 hours). Revolution is Earth orbiting the Sun (causes the year and, with axial tilt, the seasons).

What is the Big Bang theory?

The leading explanation that the universe began roughly 13.8 billion years ago from an extremely hot, dense state and has been expanding ever since.

What is the difference between renewable and nonrenewable resources? Give an example of each.

Renewable resources replenish naturally on a human timescale (e.g., solar, wind). Nonrenewable resources exist in fixed amounts and take very long to form (e.g., coal, oil, natural gas).

What is the greenhouse effect and which gases contribute to it?

The greenhouse effect is the trapping of heat in Earth's atmosphere by gases that absorb infrared radiation. Key greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor.

List the main steps of the scientific method in order.

Make an observation, ask a question, form a hypothesis, conduct an experiment, collect and analyze data, draw a conclusion, and communicate results.

In an experiment, what is the difference between the independent and dependent variable?

The independent variable is the factor the experimenter changes/manipulates. The dependent variable is what is measured and responds to that change.

What is a control group and why is it important?

A control group is not exposed to the experimental treatment and serves as a baseline for comparison, allowing scientists to determine whether the independent variable caused the observed effect.

What is the difference between accuracy and precision in measurement?

Accuracy is how close a measurement is to the true value. Precision is how close repeated measurements are to one another (reproducibility).

What is the difference between the mean, median, and mode of a data set?

The mean is the average (sum ÷ count), the median is the middle value when data are ordered, and the mode is the most frequently occurring value.

When should you use a line graph versus a bar graph?

Use a line graph to show change in a continuous variable over time or a trend; use a bar graph to compare amounts across distinct categories.

What is the difference between a qualitative and a quantitative observation?

A qualitative observation describes a quality using words (e.g., the liquid is blue). A quantitative observation uses numbers/measurements (e.g., the liquid is 25 mL).

What basic safety equipment should always be worn during most chemistry labs?

Safety goggles, a lab apron or coat, and gloves when handling chemicals; closed-toe shoes and tied-back hair are also required.

What should you do first if you spill a chemical on your skin in the lab?

Immediately flush the area with large amounts of water (at the safety shower or sink) for at least 15 minutes and notify the teacher/instructor.

What are the main steps of the engineering design process?

Identify/define the problem, research and brainstorm solutions, design and build a prototype, test and evaluate, then redesign/improve and communicate the solution. It is iterative.

In engineering design, what are constraints and criteria?

Constraints are the limitations or restrictions on a solution (e.g., budget, materials, time). Criteria are the requirements a successful solution must meet (the goals/specifications).