CSS English Essay Language Proficiency and Style Syllabus

What is the difference between an em dash and parentheses for setting off information?

Em dashes emphasize and dramatize a parenthetical insertion; parentheses de-emphasize it as a quiet aside. Both can enclose non-essential information within a sentence.

What is a run-on (fused) sentence?

A run-on sentence is two or more independent clauses joined with no punctuation or coordinating conjunction between them, e.g., 'The economy grew unemployment fell.'

What is a sentence fragment and why is it an error in formal writing?

A fragment is an incomplete sentence lacking a subject, a finite verb, or a complete thought ('Because the policy failed.'). It is faulty because it cannot stand alone as a grammatical sentence.

What is a dangling modifier? Give an example.

A dangling modifier is a modifying phrase whose intended subject is missing or misplaced, so it appears to modify the wrong word: 'Walking to school, the rain began' (the rain wasn't walking).

What is a misplaced modifier?

A modifier positioned so far from the word it describes that it seems to modify the wrong word: 'He served sandwiches to the children on paper plates' (the children weren't on plates).

Distinguish the common confusables 'affect' and 'effect'.

'Affect' is usually a verb meaning to influence ('Inflation affects prices'); 'effect' is usually a noun meaning result ('the effect of inflation').

Distinguish 'its' from 'it's'.

'Its' is the possessive of 'it' ('the country and its people'); 'it's' is the contraction of 'it is' or 'it has' ('it's a crisis').

Distinguish 'their', 'there', and 'they're'.

'Their' = possessive ('their rights'); 'there' = place or existential ('there is hope'); 'they're' = contraction of 'they are'.

What is faulty parallelism and how is it corrected?

Faulty parallelism is mixing grammatical forms in a series ('reading, writing, and to speak'). Correct it by making all elements the same form ('reading, writing, and speaking').

What is a pronoun-antecedent agreement error?

It occurs when a pronoun does not match its antecedent in number or gender, e.g., 'Every student must bring their book' (singular 'student' with plural 'their'); formal usage prefers 'his or her' or recasting as plural.

What is the difference between 'fewer' and 'less'?

'Fewer' is used with countable nouns ('fewer mistakes'); 'less' is used with uncountable/mass nouns ('less corruption').

What does precision in word choice (diction) mean?

Selecting the exact word that conveys the intended meaning, connotation, and tone, rather than a vague or approximate one, so the idea is communicated accurately.

What is the difference between denotation and connotation?

Denotation is a word's literal dictionary meaning; connotation is the emotional or cultural association it carries (e.g., 'thrifty' vs 'stingy' share a denotation but differ in connotation).

Why should writers prefer concrete and specific words over abstract, general ones?

Concrete, specific words create vivid, precise images and reduce ambiguity, whereas abstract or general words leave meaning vague and weaken impact ('a 30% rise' vs 'a big increase').

What is redundancy (tautology) in writing? Give an example.

Redundancy is using words that needlessly repeat an idea already expressed, e.g., 'free gift', 'past history', 'true facts', 'completely surrounded'.

What does it mean to eliminate wordiness, and name one technique.

Eliminating wordiness means cutting unnecessary words so each word earns its place. One technique: replace wordy phrases with single words ('due to the fact that' to 'because', 'at this point in time' to 'now').

Why is the active voice generally preferred over the passive voice in essays?

The active voice is usually more direct, concise, and forceful and clearly identifies who performs the action; the passive can be wordy and obscure the actor, though it suits cases where the actor is unknown or unimportant.

What characterizes a formal/academic register?

It avoids contractions, slang, colloquialisms, and clichés; uses precise vocabulary and complete sentences; maintains an objective, impersonal tone; and often prefers the third person.

List three things to avoid to maintain a formal academic tone.

Avoid contractions (don't, it's), avoid slang/colloquial expressions ('a lot', 'kids', 'stuff'), and avoid emotive or unsupported sweeping statements; also avoid clichés and second-person 'you'.

What is the purpose of transitional words and phrases?

They signal logical relationships between ideas, sentences, and paragraphs, guiding the reader smoothly and showing how points connect (addition, contrast, cause, sequence, etc.).

Give transitional connectors used to show CONTRAST.

However, nevertheless, on the contrary, conversely, in contrast, whereas, yet, on the other hand, notwithstanding.

Give transitional connectors used to show CAUSE AND EFFECT.

Therefore, consequently, thus, hence, as a result, accordingly, owing to this, for this reason.

Give transitional connectors used to show ADDITION.

Moreover, furthermore, in addition, additionally, besides, also, likewise, what is more.

Give transitional connectors used to show SEQUENCE or ordering.

First, second, then, next, subsequently, finally, meanwhile, afterwards, lastly.

What is paragraph-to-paragraph flow (coherence between paragraphs)?

The logical, smooth progression from one paragraph to the next, achieved by transitional sentences, repeated key terms, and ordering ideas so each paragraph builds on the previous one.

What is a topic sentence and what role does it play in a paragraph?

A topic sentence states the paragraph's main idea, usually at the start; it controls the paragraph's content and links it to the essay's thesis, ensuring unity and direction.

What is thematic unity in an essay?

Thematic unity means every paragraph and point relates directly to the central thesis/theme, with no irrelevant digressions, so the essay reads as one coherent argument.

What is the difference between coherence and cohesion?

Coherence is the overall logical clarity and sense of the whole text; cohesion is the surface linkage between sentences achieved by connectives, pronoun reference, and repetition of key terms.

What does 'clarity of thought over complexity' mean as a writing principle?

It means prioritizing clear, well-organized ideas expressed plainly over ornate vocabulary or convoluted sentences; clear thinking expressed simply is more effective than impressive-sounding but obscure prose.

What are two common sources of ambiguity in a sentence, and how are they removed?

Unclear pronoun reference (a pronoun with no clear antecedent) and faulty word order/misplaced modifiers. They are removed by naming the referent explicitly and placing modifiers next to the words they describe.