CSS Current Affairs Global Issues Syllabus

Define 'globalization' and list its main dimensions.

Globalization is the increasing interconnection and interdependence of the world through flows of goods, services, capital, people, technology, and ideas. Its main dimensions are economic, political, cultural, technological, and environmental.

Distinguish 'comparative advantage' from 'absolute advantage' in trade theory.

Absolute advantage (Adam Smith): a country produces a good more efficiently (lower cost) than another. Comparative advantage (David Ricardo): a country should specialize in goods where its opportunity cost is lowest, enabling mutually beneficial trade even if one country is absolutely more efficient at everything.

What is the difference between a free trade area, a customs union, and a common market?

Free trade area: removes internal tariffs but each member keeps its own external tariffs (e.g. NAFTA/USMCA). Customs union: free internal trade plus a common external tariff (e.g. early EEC). Common market: a customs union plus free movement of factors (labour and capital), as in the EU single market.

What is the scientific definition of the 'greenhouse effect' and which gases are the main contributors?

The greenhouse effect is the trapping of outgoing infrared (heat) radiation by atmospheric gases, warming the Earth's surface. Main greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), water vapour, and fluorinated gases (CFCs/HFCs).

What is the central temperature goal of the 2015 Paris Agreement?

To hold the increase in global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, and to pursue efforts to limit the increase to 1.5°C. It operates through nationally determined contributions (NDCs) reviewed every five years.

What is the difference between the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement in terms of obligations?

Kyoto Protocol (1997) imposed binding emission-reduction targets only on developed (Annex I) countries, reflecting 'common but differentiated responsibilities.' The Paris Agreement (2015) is universal, with all countries setting their own voluntary, nationally determined contributions (NDCs).

What does the IPCC do, and what does the acronym stand for?

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), established 1988 by UNEP and WMO, assesses and synthesizes scientific research on climate change. It does not conduct original research but issues authoritative Assessment Reports informing policy; it shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize.

What is the difference between climate 'mitigation' and 'adaptation'?

Mitigation means reducing or preventing greenhouse gas emissions (renewable energy, reforestation, efficiency). Adaptation means adjusting to actual or expected climate impacts to reduce harm (sea walls, drought-resistant crops, early-warning systems).

How many Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are there, when were they adopted, and what is their target year?

There are 17 SDGs with 169 targets, adopted by the UN in 2015 under 'Transforming Our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,' to be achieved by 2030. They succeeded the 8 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 2000-2015).

What is SDG 13, and name three other SDGs by number.

SDG 13 is 'Climate Action.' Examples: SDG 1 (No Poverty), SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being), SDG 4 (Quality Education), SDG 5 (Gender Equality), SDG 16 (Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions).

What is the difference between the MDGs and the SDGs?

MDGs (2000-2015) had 8 goals focused mainly on developing countries and poverty/social issues. SDGs (2015-2030) have 17 goals that are universal (apply to all countries), broader (include environment, economy, governance), and emphasize the principle of 'leaving no one behind.'

What is the 'demographic transition' model?

A model describing the shift of populations through stages as societies develop: from high birth and death rates (Stage 1), to falling death rates with high birth rates causing rapid growth (Stage 2), to falling birth rates (Stage 3), to low birth and death rates with stable/aging populations (Stage 4/5).

What is a 'demographic dividend' and why is it relevant to Pakistan?

The demographic dividend is the potential economic growth boost when a country's working-age population (15-64) is large relative to dependents. Pakistan, with a very young population (median age in the early 20s), can reap this only if it invests in education, skills, health, and job creation.

What is the 'replacement-level fertility' rate, and what does 'below replacement' imply?

Replacement-level fertility is roughly 2.1 children per woman — the level needed to keep a population constant (without migration). Below this level, a population will eventually shrink and age, as seen in Japan, much of Europe, and increasingly China.

What is the difference between OPEC and OPEC+?

OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, founded 1960) is a cartel of major oil-exporting states coordinating production/prices. OPEC+ adds non-OPEC producers — most importantly Russia — to coordinate output cuts/increases for greater market influence.

In global energy politics, what is a 'chokepoint' and name two critical maritime oil chokepoints.

A chokepoint is a narrow strategic passage through which a large share of global energy/trade must transit, vulnerable to disruption. Key examples: the Strait of Hormuz (Persian Gulf oil) and the Strait of Malacca (between Indian and Pacific Oceans); also Bab-el-Mandeb and the Suez Canal.

What is the 'energy trilemma' that states must balance?

The energy trilemma is balancing three competing objectives: energy security (reliable supply), energy equity/affordability (accessible, low-cost energy), and environmental sustainability (low emissions). Policy choices often involve trade-offs among these three.

What does UNCLOS govern, and what are the main maritime zones it defines?

UNCLOS (UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982) governs the rights and responsibilities of states in the oceans. Key zones (measured from baselines): Territorial Sea (12 nautical miles), Contiguous Zone (24 nm), and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ, 200 nm), beyond which lie the high seas.

What rights does a coastal state have in its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)?

Within its 200-nautical-mile EEZ, a coastal state has sovereign rights to explore, exploit, conserve, and manage natural resources (fish, oil, gas, minerals) in the water, seabed, and subsoil — but other states retain freedoms of navigation and overflight.

What is the core dispute in the South China Sea, and what was the 2016 ruling?

China claims most of the South China Sea via its 'nine-dash line,' overlapping with claims by the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, and Taiwan. In 2016 a Permanent Court of Arbitration tribunal (under UNCLOS) ruled in favour of the Philippines, finding China's nine-dash-line claim had no legal basis; China rejected the ruling.

What is the foundational document of the modern international human rights regime, and when was it adopted?

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted by the UN General Assembly on 10 December 1948 (now Human Rights Day). It is non-binding but foundational, later given binding force through the two 1966 Covenants (ICCPR and ICESCR).

What are the two 1966 International Covenants that, with the UDHR, form the 'International Bill of Human Rights'?

The ICCPR (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights) and the ICESCR (International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), both adopted in 1966. Together with the UDHR they constitute the International Bill of Human Rights.

Distinguish the three 'generations' of human rights.

First generation: civil and political rights (liberty, free speech, voting — 'negative' rights). Second generation: economic, social, and cultural rights (work, education, health — 'positive' rights). Third generation: collective/solidarity rights (self-determination, development, a healthy environment, peace).

What is the difference between the ICJ and the ICC?

The ICJ (International Court of Justice, the UN's principal judicial organ, The Hague) settles legal disputes between states and gives advisory opinions. The ICC (International Criminal Court, est. by the 1998 Rome Statute, effective 2002) prosecutes individuals for genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and aggression.

What four core crimes fall under the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court (ICC)?

Genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression. The ICC is a court of last resort, acting only when national courts are unwilling or unable to prosecute (the principle of complementarity).

What is the 'Responsibility to Protect' (R2P) doctrine?

R2P (endorsed at the 2005 UN World Summit) holds that states have a responsibility to protect their populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity; if a state fails, the international community has a responsibility to act, including through UN-authorized collective action as a last resort.

What were the Abraham Accords (2020)?

US-brokered agreements in 2020 normalizing relations between Israel and several Arab states — first the UAE and Bahrain, later Sudan and Morocco. They marked a shift away from the prior Arab consensus that normalization required first resolving the Palestinian issue.

What is the two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and what core issues remain unresolved?

It envisions an independent Palestinian state alongside Israel, broadly along pre-1967 lines. Core 'final status' issues blocking it: borders/settlements, the status of Jerusalem, the right of return of Palestinian refugees, security arrangements, and water.

What was the significance of the 1947 UN Partition Plan (Resolution 181) and the 1967 Six-Day War for the Palestine issue?

UNGA Resolution 181 (1947) proposed partitioning British Mandate Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states with Jerusalem internationalized; Arabs rejected it and Israel was established in 1948. In the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel captured the West Bank, Gaza, East Jerusalem, the Golan Heights, and Sinai, defining the occupied territories central to the dispute.

What was the legal basis of the Kashmir dispute at independence in 1947, and what did UN Resolution 47 (1948) call for?

At Partition, the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, with a Muslim majority but a Hindu ruler (Maharaja Hari Singh), acceded to India after tribal incursions, sparking the first India-Pakistan war. UN Security Council Resolution 47 (1948) called for a plebiscite to let the people decide accession, which has never been held.

What did India's revocation of Article 370 in August 2019 do regarding Kashmir?

India revoked Article 370 of its constitution, which had granted Jammu and Kashmir special autonomous status, and reorganized the region into two union territories (Jammu & Kashmir, and Ladakh) under direct central control. Pakistan condemned the move as illegal and a violation of UN resolutions; it remains a major flashpoint.