CSS Criminology Contemporary Issues and Institutions Syllabus

State the basic relationship criminologists observe between urbanization and crime.

Crime rates, especially property and violent crime, tend to be higher in urbanized areas due to anonymity, weakened social bonds, inequality, and concentration of opportunities.

Which Chicago School theory links urban neighborhood breakdown to crime?

Social disorganization theory (Shaw and McKay), holding that crime results from weakened community controls in poor, heterogeneous, transient urban zones.

What is the 'concentric zone model' relevance to urban crime?

Burgess's model where the 'zone in transition' surrounding the city center shows the highest crime due to instability, poverty, and social disorganization.

Define the 'broken windows theory'.

Wilson and Kelling's theory that visible signs of disorder and neglect (e.g., broken windows, graffiti) encourage further crime, so addressing minor disorder prevents serious crime.

What is CPTED in urban crime prevention?

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design—reducing crime by designing the built environment (lighting, visibility, access control, territoriality) to deter offenders.

What does 'gendered nature of crime' mean in criminology?

That crime patterns, victimization, offending rates, and criminal justice treatment differ systematically by gender, with men committing most crime and women experiencing distinct victimization.

Name two major forms of gender-based violence prominent in Pakistan's criminology discourse.

Honor killings (karo-kari) and domestic violence; also acid attacks, dowry-related violence, and forced marriage.

What is an 'honor killing' (karo-kari)?

The murder of a person, usually a woman, by family members who believe the victim has brought dishonor upon the family, often over perceived sexual or marital transgressions.

Which 2004 and 2016 Pakistani laws addressed honor killings?

The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2004 and the Criminal Law (Amendment) (Offences in the Name or Pretext of Honour) Act 2016, the latter closing the qisas/diyat forgiveness loophole.

What is the 'chivalry thesis' in gender and crime?

The hypothesis that the criminal justice system treats female offenders more leniently than males because of paternalistic attitudes, partly explaining women's lower official crime rates.

Name the Pakistani 2010 law protecting women in the workplace.

The Protection Against Harassment of Women at the Workplace Act, 2010.

Define 'human rights' in the criminal justice context.

The basic rights and freedoms inherent to all persons—such as the right to life, liberty, fair trial, and freedom from torture—that the state must respect, protect, and fulfil.

What are 'extrajudicial killings'?

Killings carried out by state agents (e.g., police, security forces) without legal authority, due process, or judicial sanction—commonly cited as 'fake encounters' in Pakistan.

What is 'enforced disappearance'?

The arrest, detention, or abduction of a person by the state followed by refusal to acknowledge the deprivation of liberty or to disclose the person's fate or whereabouts.

Which national institution in Pakistan was established to protect human rights, and under which 2012 law?

The National Commission for Human Rights (NCHR), established under the National Commission for Human Rights Act, 2012.

What is the foundational 1948 UN document on human rights?

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted by the UN General Assembly on December 10, 1948.

Define cybercrime.

Criminal activity that targets or uses computers, computer networks, or networked devices—including hacking, identity theft, fraud, and the spread of malware or illegal content.

Which 2016 Pakistani law governs cybercrime, and which agency investigates it?

The Prevention of Electronic Crimes Act (PECA) 2016; investigated by the FIA's Cyber Crime Wing (formerly NR3C).

Distinguish 'cyber-dependent' from 'cyber-enabled' crime.

Cyber-dependent crimes (e.g., hacking, malware) can only be committed using computers/networks; cyber-enabled crimes (e.g., fraud, theft) are traditional crimes amplified by technology.

What is 'phishing' in cybercrime?

A fraudulent attempt to obtain sensitive information (passwords, bank details) by disguising as a trustworthy entity in electronic communication.

Define money laundering.

The process of disguising the proceeds of crime to make illegally obtained money appear legitimate.

Name the three stages of money laundering.

Placement (introducing illicit funds into the financial system), Layering (concealing the source through complex transactions), and Integration (returning the laundered funds to the criminal as apparently legitimate).

Which intergovernmental body sets global anti-money-laundering standards?

The Financial Action Task Force (FATF), established in 1989, which maintains 'grey' and 'black' lists for non-compliant jurisdictions.

Which Pakistani law and agency deal with money laundering?

The Anti-Money Laundering Act 2010, with the Financial Monitoring Unit (FMU) as the financial intelligence unit and FIA/NAB as investigative agencies.

Distinguish human trafficking from human smuggling.

Trafficking involves coercion/exploitation of a victim and need not cross borders; smuggling is the consensual, paid facilitation of illegal border crossing and ends on arrival.

What three elements define human trafficking under the UN Palermo Protocol?

The Act (recruitment, transport, harbouring), the Means (force, fraud, coercion, deception), and the Purpose (exploitation, e.g., forced labour or sexual exploitation).

Which Pakistani 2018 laws replaced earlier trafficking/smuggling ordinances?

The Prevention of Trafficking in Persons Act 2018 and the Prevention of Smuggling of Migrants Act 2018, enforced primarily by the FIA.

What is the FIA and what is its mandate in Pakistan?

The Federal Investigation Agency—a federal border control, criminal investigation, and intelligence agency handling immigration, human trafficking, cybercrime, financial crime, and anti-terrorism.

What does NACTA stand for and what is its role?

The National Counter Terrorism Authority—Pakistan's coordinating body for counter-terrorism and counter-extremism policy and intelligence sharing among agencies.

What is Interpol and how many member countries does it have?

The International Criminal Police Organization, the world's largest international police body with 196 member countries, facilitating cross-border police cooperation via 'colour-coded notices' (e.g., Red Notice).

Name the UN office responsible for drugs and crime, and the UN convention against transnational organized crime.

UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime); the relevant treaty is the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC/Palermo Convention, 2000).