CBSE Class 10 Social Science Syllabus

What were the main recommendations of the 1992 Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit?

It adopted Agenda 21 to combat environmental damage, poverty and disease through global cooperation on shared interests and mutual needs.

What are the broad classifications of soils found in India?

Alluvial, black (regur), red and yellow, laterite, arid (desert), and forest soils.

What is the difference between sheet erosion and gully erosion?

In sheet erosion water flows as a sheet over large areas down a slope washing away topsoil; in gully erosion running water cuts deep channels (gullies) making land unfit for cultivation (badland).

Under the IUCN classification, what are 'endemic' and 'extinct' species?

Endemic species are found only in a particular area and nowhere else (e.g. Andaman teal); extinct species are no longer found after exhaustive searches (e.g. Asiatic cheetah in India).

What is the Project Tiger and when was it launched?

A conservation programme launched in 1973 to protect the tiger, India's national animal, from extinction by setting up tiger reserves.

What are the categories of forests based on legal status in India?

Reserved forests (most valuable, fully protected), protected forests (about one-third, protected from depletion), and unclassed forests (other forests/wastelands owned by govt/individuals/communities).

What is the difference between flow resources and water as a renewable resource?

Water is renewable because it is continually replenished by the hydrological cycle; yet over-use and pollution can cause scarcity even though total supply is fixed.

What is a multipurpose river project? Give one example.

A dam-based project serving several purposes at once-irrigation, hydroelectricity, flood control, water supply, navigation. Example: the Bhakra-Nangal project (Sutlej-Beas) or Hirakud (Mahanadi).

Why did Jawaharlal Nehru call dams the 'temples of modern India'?

Because multipurpose projects integrated irrigation, power, flood control and development; he believed they would lead to overall development of agriculture, industry and the rural economy.

What is rainwater harvesting and give one traditional example?

Collecting and storing rainwater for future use. Traditional examples: 'guls'/'kuls' in the Himalayas, rooftop tanks in Rajasthan (tankas), 'khadins' and 'johads', and bamboo drip irrigation in Meghalaya.

What is the difference between primitive subsistence and intensive subsistence farming?

Primitive subsistence (slash-and-burn/jhumming) uses primitive tools on small patches with low output for self-consumption; intensive subsistence uses high doses of labour and inputs on small holdings for higher output.

What are the three cropping seasons in India and one crop of each?

Rabi (sown winter, harvested spring-e.g. wheat), Kharif (sown with monsoon, harvested autumn-e.g. rice), and Zaid (short summer season-e.g. watermelon, cucumber).

What climatic conditions does rice require?

A kharif crop requiring high temperature (above 25 C) and high humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm; grown in plains, deltas and areas with assured irrigation.

Which crops are classified as beverage crops in India?

Tea and coffee. Tea grows on well-drained hill slopes (Assam, Darjeeling); Indian coffee (Arabica variety) is grown mainly in the Nilgiri hills of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

What was the Green Revolution?

The introduction (from the 1960s-70s) of high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, irrigation and modern machinery that sharply raised food-grain production, especially wheat and rice.

On what basis are minerals classified into ferrous and non-ferrous metallic minerals?

Ferrous minerals contain iron (e.g. iron ore, manganese, nickel, cobalt); non-ferrous minerals do not contain iron (e.g. copper, bauxite, lead, gold).

What are the two main types of iron ore and which is the highest quality?

Magnetite and haematite. Magnetite is the finest iron ore with very high iron content (up to about 70%) and magnetic qualities; haematite is the most important industrial ore.

Distinguish between conventional and non-conventional sources of energy.

Conventional sources include firewood, coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity (hydro/thermal); non-conventional (renewable) sources include solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic energy.

What are the four types/grades of coal based on degree of carbonisation?

Anthracite (highest quality, highest carbon), bituminous (most popular for commercial use), lignite (low-grade brown coal), and peat (lowest, lowest carbon).

On what basis are industries classified by their main role?

Basic/key industries (supply products to other industries, e.g. iron and steel) and consumer industries (produce goods for direct use, e.g. sugar, paper, toothpaste).

What is the significance of the iron and steel industry?

It is a basic/heavy industry on which all other industries depend for their machinery; production and consumption of steel is an index of a country's development.

What is agro-based industry? Give two examples.

Industries that use agricultural products as raw material. Examples: cotton textiles, jute textiles, sugar, edible oil.

What are the main industrial pollutants and the four types of pollution they cause?

Industries cause air pollution (smoke, gases), water pollution (effluents), land pollution (toxic wastes) and noise pollution (machinery, generators).

Why is transport called the 'lifeline' of the national economy?

Transport and communication links production centres with markets, integrates the economy, supports trade, and is essential for moving raw materials and finished goods.

What are the main modes of transport classified in India?

Roadways, railways, pipelines, waterways (inland and oceanic), and airways.

What is the Golden Quadrilateral super highway project?

A network of six-lane national highways linking Delhi-Kolkata-Chennai-Mumbai, aimed at reducing travel time and distance between mega cities of India.

How are roads classified in India by quality and function?

Golden Quadrilateral/super highways, National Highways, State Highways, District roads, Other (rural) roads, and Border roads.

What is meant by international trade being the 'economic barometer' of a country?

The balance of trade-exports versus imports-indicates a nation's economic prosperity; a favourable balance (exports more than imports) signals economic strength.

What is power sharing and why is it desirable (prudential and moral reasons)?

Distribution of power among different organs/levels/groups. Prudential reason: it reduces conflict and ensures stability. Moral reason: it is the very spirit of democracy, giving people a stake in the system.

How did Belgium accommodate its regional and cultural diversity?

Through 'community government' elected by people of one language group, equal representation of Dutch and French speakers in the central government, and giving more powers to state governments.

How is power shared in Sri Lanka and what was the result of majoritarianism?

Sri Lanka did not share power; the Sinhala majority imposed Sinhala as the only official language and favoured Buddhism, alienating Tamils and leading to civil war.

What are the key features of federalism?

Two or more levels of government; each level has its own jurisdiction; powers and finances are constitutionally guaranteed; the constitution can only be changed with consent of both levels; courts settle disputes.

What are the three lists that divide powers between Union and States in India?

Union List (subjects of national importance-defence, foreign affairs, currency), State List (local importance-police, trade, agriculture), and Concurrent List (shared-education, forests, marriage).

What was the major step towards decentralisation in India in 1992?

The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments made it constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies (panchayats and municipalities) with reservation for SCs, STs and women.

What is the difference between social, overlapping and cross-cutting differences?

Overlapping differences (e.g. caste + class aligning) deepen social division and are dangerous; cross-cutting differences (one social division not reinforced by another) are easier to accommodate in democracy.

What is the difference between the sexual division of labour and feminism?

Sexual division of labour assigns housework to women and outside work to men; feminism is a movement/ideology demanding equal rights and opportunities for women and men.

What is communalism and how can it take political forms?

The belief that one religion is superior and the interests of religious communities are mutually opposed. It expresses as religious prejudice, majority/minority dominance, and use of religion in politics.

What is meant by 'caste hierarchy' and how does caste influence Indian politics?

Caste hierarchy is the ranking of caste groups in ascending/descending order. Caste affects politics through candidate selection, vote appeals, and caste-based parties-but no single caste forms a majority anywhere.

What is the difference between a movement and an interest/pressure group?

Pressure/interest groups are organisations that promote a specific interest and influence government without contesting elections; movements are loose, issue-based collective actions, often with no formal structure.

What is the difference between sectional interest groups and public interest (promotional) groups?

Sectional groups promote the interest of a particular section (e.g. trade unions); public interest groups promote a collective good benefiting society at large (e.g. groups against bonded labour).

What is a political party and what are its three components?

A group of people who contest elections to hold power. Its three components are the leaders, the active members, and the followers.

What is the difference between a one-party, two-party and multi-party system?

One-party: only one party allowed (e.g. China); two-party: power usually alternates between two main parties (e.g. USA, UK); multi-party: several parties compete, often forming alliances/coalitions (e.g. India).

What are the main challenges faced by political parties?

Lack of internal democracy/dynastic succession, growing role of money and muscle power, and lack of meaningful choice for voters between parties.

What conditions are needed for a state to be recognised as a national party in India?

A registered party that secures at least 6% of total votes in Lok Sabha or Assembly elections in four states AND wins at least four Lok Sabha seats is recognised as a national party.

What is the most basic outcome of democracy regarding accountability?

Democracy produces a government that is accountable, responsive to citizens' needs and expectations, and legitimate-conducted through free and fair elections and open public debate.

How does democracy promote dignity and freedom of citizens?

By upholding the dignity and freedom of individuals through equality before law, and recognising the claims of disadvantaged and marginalised groups.

What is the difference between foundational and other challenges to democracy?

Foundational challenge: making the transition to democracy and establishing a democratic government (faced by non-democratic regimes); expansion challenge: applying democratic principles to all regions/groups; deepening: strengthening democratic institutions.

What is a 'democratic reform' or political reform?

All suggestions or proposals to strengthen and improve the practice of democracy, usually carried out by political activists, movements and politically conscious citizens rather than by law alone.

Why can income alone be a misleading measure of development?

Average (per capita) income hides distribution/inequalities; people also seek non-material goals like equal treatment, freedom, security and respect, and quality of environment-not just income.

What three indicators does the Human Development Index (HDI) use?

Per capita income (PPP in US dollars), education (literacy/years of schooling), and health (life expectancy at birth).

What is Body Mass Index (BMI) used to measure?

It is a measure to check nutritional status of adults: weight (kg) divided by height (in metres) squared. Below 18.5 = undernourished; above 25 = overweight.

What are the three sectors of the economy and how is each defined?

Primary sector (production from natural resources, e.g. agriculture, mining); secondary sector (manufacturing/industry transforming raw materials); tertiary sector (services that support the other two, e.g. transport, banking).

What is the difference between the organised and unorganised sectors?

Organised sector has registered enterprises with regular employment, fixed hours, and job security/benefits; unorganised sector has small, scattered units outside government control with low pay, no security and irregular work.

What is disguised (hidden) unemployment? Give an example.

When more people are employed in a job than are actually needed, so removing some would not reduce output. Example: an entire family working on a small farm where only a few are really required.

What are public sector and private sector enterprises?

In the public sector the government owns most assets and provides services (e.g. railways, post office); in the private sector ownership and management is in the hands of individuals or companies (e.g. Tata, Reliance).

What are the two essential conditions for money to act as a medium of exchange (vs barter)?

Money removes the need for a 'double coincidence of wants' required in barter; both parties accept money as an intermediate, so one need not directly want what the other has.

What are the two ways banks use the deposits they receive?

Banks keep only a small portion (e.g. about 15%) as cash reserve to pay depositors, and use the major portion to extend loans, charging higher interest on loans than they pay on deposits.

What is collateral and why do lenders ask for it?

Collateral is an asset (land, building, vehicle, deposits) that a borrower owns and uses as a guarantee to a lender until the loan is repaid; lenders use it to recover money if the borrower fails to repay.

What are the two main sources of credit-formal and informal-and who supervises the formal sector?

Formal sources: banks and cooperatives, supervised by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). Informal sources: moneylenders, traders, employers, relatives-with no supervision, often charging very high interest.

What is a Self Help Group (SHG) and how does it help the poor get credit?

A group of 15-20 members (usually women) who pool savings; members can borrow from the group at reasonable interest, and the group can obtain bank loans, providing collateral-free credit and self-reliance.

What is globalisation?

The process of rapid integration or interconnection of countries through greater foreign trade and foreign investment by multinational corporations (MNCs).

What is a multinational corporation (MNC)?

A company that owns or controls production in more than one country, setting up production where it is close to markets, has cheap labour and resources, and favourable government policies.

What is the role of trade barriers and how did liberalisation change them in India?

Trade barriers (e.g. tax on imports) restrict foreign trade. After 1991 India removed many barriers (liberalisation), allowing freer import/export and foreign investment to make the economy more competitive.

What is the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and one criticism of it?

An international organisation (started 1995) that aims to liberalise international trade. Criticism: though it claims free trade for all, in practice developed countries retain trade barriers, putting developing countries at a disadvantage.

What are the six rights guaranteed under the Consumer Protection Act (COPRA), 1986?

Right to safety, right to be informed, right to choose, right to seek redressal, right to be heard (represented), and the right to consumer education.

What is the three-tier redressal machinery under COPRA?

District forum (claims up to a fixed limit), State Commission (higher claims), and National Commission, where consumers can appeal against unfair trade practices.

What do the ISI, AGMARK and Hallmark logos certify?

ISI certifies quality of industrial/electrical goods; AGMARK certifies quality of agricultural products; Hallmark certifies the purity of gold and other precious metals.

What is the significance of 24 December and 15 March for consumers in India?

24 December is celebrated as National Consumers' Day (COPRA enacted on this day in 1986); 15 March is World Consumer Rights Day.

How did the First World War create conditions for nationalism in India?

It led to a huge rise in defence expenditure, increased taxes, soaring prices and forced recruitment in rural areas, causing widespread hardship and resentment that fed the national movement.

Why is solar energy considered a promising non-conventional energy source for India?

India is a tropical country receiving abundant sunlight throughout the year; photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into electricity, which is pollution-free and especially useful for rural and remote areas.